Fascism
It is a product of the twentieth century, specifically the period between the two world wars. Its manifestation was the fascist dictatorship of B. Mussolini in Italy (1922-1943) and the Nazi dictatorship of A. Hitler in Germany (1933-1945).
Fascism took shape as a protest against the values of Western democracy: rationalism, freedom, progress, equality. Contrasting them with the ideas of hegemony, leaderism, war and heroism.
Central theme:
- "everything for the state, nothing against the state, nothing outside the state" - for Italian fascism and the superiority of the Aryan (superior) race - for German National Socialism;
- the formation of a single nation on the principle of "strength through unity";
- the personality is completely dissolved in the team, the group;
- education of a "new person" - a hero with a sense of duty, honor, selflessness;
- readiness for the sake of the Fuhrer (leader), his nation or race to sacrifice his life.
In the early 20s. of the current century in Germany, which was defeated in the First World War, burdened with many economic and social difficulties, political and ideological conflicts, arose national socialist movement. It was a kind of expression of the deep social crisis that engulfed at that time one of the largest countries in Europe. The National Socialist Movement acted with its own program to overcome a difficult crisis and launched a struggle for the reorganization of Germany on the principles of National Socialism.
From 1933 to 1945, the German National Socialists were in power, directly introducing the principles they professed into state legal practice, into the science of state and law.
The ideological core of these National Socialist ideas is the project totalitarian political power. According to the National Socialists the state should be only one of the elements(but not at all the main) German political community. It has a tripartite division. It is formed by:
1) "movement" (i.e., the National Socialist German Workers' Party);
2) "the state" (actually the state apparatus);
3) "the people" (i.e. Germans organized into various non-party and non-state associations).
In the structure of the German political community, the ideologists of fascism recognized their party, the National Socialist German Workers' Party (German abbreviation -NSDAP), as an unconditional priority part of it.
The dictate of the Nazi Party over the state was proposed to be ensured through a number of means. In particular, emphasis was placed on the "unification" of the party and the state. More precisely, on fusion of the Nazi party with the state and on the implementation by this party of full-fledged leadership of them. Specifically, "unification" meant a set of specific practical measures. Let's point out some of them.
- Appointment to all more or less noticeable government posts exclusively members of the Nazi Party. Belonging to it is the first and most important privilege in holding a public office.
- Concentration at the very top of the political pyramid of state and central party power in the same hands.
- Legitimization by the state itself of widespread party control over all state bodies, their personnel and activities.
- Transfer of state functions to the organs of the Nazi Party. The merger of related, "single-profile" state and party formations.
- Establishment of the state payment (similar to the salary of officials) to party functionaries who are engaged in the actual party-organizational and agitation and explanatory work.
The leadership of such a state was to be carried out (or was already carried out) exclusively leader (fuhrer)) - Hitler. The postulate about the need for just such a political leadership of the state, movement, people, or "Fuhrer-principle", is also included in the core of fascist ideology.
Its adherents see leaderism(Hitler - the personification of the supreme leader) is a natural consequence and completion of the hierarchical construction of any racial socio-political community. For them, leaderism is the best form of organizing power, streamlining power relations. The leader system presupposes at each step of the party and state hierarchy a corresponding appointed official - a chief who personally and correctly decides everything within his competence. He receives his power from a superior commanding person, completely depends on him and answers directly to him. No representative institutions, especially "lower classes", can interfere with the prerogatives and activities of commanding persons (ie, "fuhrers" of various ranks).
At the top of the entire hierarchical pyramid stands one figure - the Fuhrer, the leader. The Fuhrer personifies the will of the people, precisely expresses their racial spirit. Therefore, his authority is indisputable, his power is unlimited.. It is predominantly (in terms of justification) mystical and personal in nature. Leader - charismatic leader. The unquestioning fulfillment of the orders of the Fuhrer or the orders of the caste of Fuhrers subordinate to him of a smaller caliber is the realization of the aspirations of the people. There are no (and cannot be) any intermediaries between the Fuhrer and the people. The leader and the people are one. No representative institutions are in a position to express the interests of the whole people. Only the Fuhrer is capable of this. Therefore, no one should even in the slightest degree limit his power, his service to the idea of the people.
The substratum of statehood is "the people", "the people's community". The Nazis assured that the "people" for them - a fundamental value. Along with the "Fuhrer-principle", the category "people", subjected to Nazi processing, was intended to eradicate the theory and practice of a democratic constitutional state. With its help, they tried, in particular, to overturn one of the foundations of liberalism: the view of a free independent individual as a priority value in a normal state-organized society. The Nazi creed was radically different, directly opposite: "You are nothing, your people are everything!"
National Socialism in Germany (German fascism) was, and perhaps still is, the most aggressive form of National Socialist ideology. But, as historical experience shows, it can also exist and assert itself in other guises, it can mimic, lure people with other slogans and promises. However, in all cases, its spread and consolidation is mortally dangerous for civilization. It is necessary to clearly imagine the inhuman essence and manifestations of fascism of various shades in order to resist it and gain the upper hand over it.
In the early 20s. of the current century in Germany, which was defeated in the First World War, burdened with many economic and social difficulties, political and ideological conflicts, the National Socialist movement arose. It was a kind of expression of the deep social crisis that engulfed at that time one of the largest countries in Europe. The National Socialist movement came up with its own program to overcome the difficult crisis and launched a struggle for the reorganization of Germany on the principles of National Socialism.
From 1933 to 1945, the German National Socialists were in power, directly introducing the principles they professed into state legal practice, into the science of state and law.
The ideological core of these National Socialist ideas is the project of totalitarian political power. According to the National Socialists, the state should be only one of the elements (but by no means the main one) of the German political community. It has a tripartite division. It is formed by: 1) the "movement" (ie, the National Socialist German Workers' Party); 2) "the state" (actually the state apparatus); 3) "the people" (i.e. Germans organized into various non-party and non-state associations).
In the structure of the German political community, the ideologists of fascism recognized their party, the National Socialist German Workers' Party (German abbreviation -NSDAP), as an unconditional priority part of it.
The dictate of the Nazi Party over the state was proposed to be ensured through a number of means. In particular, emphasis was placed on the "unification" of the party and the state. More precisely, on the fusion of the Nazi Party with the state and on the exercise by this party of its full-fledged leadership. Specifically, "unification" meant a set of specific practical measures. Let's point out some of them. Appointment to all more or less noticeable government posts exclusively members of the Nazi Party. Belonging to it is the first and most important privilege in holding a public office. Concentration at the very top of the political pyramid of state and central party power in the same hands. Legitimization by the state itself of widespread party control over all state bodies, their personnel and activities. Transfer of state functions to the organs of the Nazi Party. The merger of related, "single-profile" state and party formations. Establishment of the state payment (similar to the salary of officials) to party functionaries who are engaged in the actual party-organizational and agitation and explanatory work.
At the same time, the need to maintain a considerable number of external, purely institutional differences between the party and the state was also emphasized. The opinion about maintaining these differences was based on the premise that the organizational, formal discrepancy between the party and the state corresponds to a deep historical tradition (a departure from which will bring more costs than dividends) and is expedient for pragmatic and political reasons.
The fascist-party state, according to the ideas of its designers, was to become (and it became!) The complete opposite of the democratic-legal state, which they rejected as an establishment contrary to the nature of the German nation. The leadership of such a state was to be carried out (or was already carried out) exclusively by the leader (Fuhrer) - Hitler. The postulate about the need for just such a political leadership of the state, movement, people, or "Fuhrer-principle", is also included in the core of fascist ideology.
Its adherents see in leaderism (Hitler is the personification of the supreme leader) a natural consequence and completion of the hierarchical construction of any racial socio-political community. For them, leaderism is the best form of organizing power, streamlining power relations. The leader system presupposes at each step of the party and state hierarchy a corresponding appointed official - a chief who personally and correctly decides everything within his competence. He receives his power from a superior commanding person, completely depends on him and answers directly to him. No representative institutions, especially "lower classes", can interfere with the prerogatives and activities of commanding persons (ie, "fuhrers" of various ranks).
At the top of the entire hierarchical pyramid stands one figure - the Fuhrer, the leader. The Fuhrer personifies the will of the people, precisely expresses their racial spirit. Therefore, his authority is indisputable, his power is unlimited. It is predominantly (in terms of justification) mystical and personal in nature. The leader is a charismatic leader. The unquestioning fulfillment of the orders of the Fuhrer or the orders of the caste of Fuhrers subordinate to him of a smaller caliber is the realization of the aspirations of the people. There are no (and cannot be) any intermediaries between the Fuhrer and the people. Leader and people are one. No representative institutions are in a position to express the interests of the whole people. Only the Fuhrer is capable of this. Therefore, no one should even in the slightest degree limit his power, his service to the idea of the people.
The substratum of statehood is "the people", "the people's community". The Nazis assured that the "people" for them - a fundamental value. Along with the "Fuhrer-principle", the category "people", subjected to Nazi processing, was intended to eradicate the theory and practice of a democratic constitutional state. With its help, they tried, in particular, to overturn one of the foundations of liberalism: the view of a free independent individual as a priority value in a normal state-organized society. The Nazi creed was radically different, directly opposite: "You are nothing, your people are everything!"
With the penetration of Nazi ideas into German jurisprudence, it began to change radically and quickly lose the features of professional scientific and legal knowledge and decline. National socialist-oriented authors fiercely attacked the ideological foundations of the traditional European theory of law: rational thinking, the art of argumentation, openness to criticism, tolerance, the absence of national barriers, etc.
What, after all, is the specificity of National Socialist legal thinking? Recognition as a law-forming factor, the soil of the law of the race, the national spirit. The statement that there is no individual "natural right" belonging to the person, but only a people-racial, racially determined right. "Law is what the Aryans define as 'right'." The invention of the dependence of the nature of law on the biological matter of a special kind (race), on the will of people ("Aryans"), tailored from such matter, was needed "for the scientific" substantiation of the concept of "special law", common among Nazi jurists. Their reasoning on this topic, perhaps like no other, reveals a catastrophic (and terrible in its practical consequences) gap between Nazi jurisprudence and the fundamental principles of law, in particular, with such initial principles as legal equality, the equality of all before the law.
The maxim proclaimed by the Nazis: the right is a product of a race, and therefore it can be possessed, be its bearers only by subjects belonging to this race, nation, "national community" by blood - logically substantiate Vala the thesis, which is very close to it in essence. This thesis read: only members of the "people's community", "people's comrades" act as full-fledged subjects of racial-people's law (and the "Third Reich" did not recognize anything else). Universal, universal legal equality was discarded and forgotten. Instead, a special, "racial" ("people's") equality was imposed, due to which significant groups of citizens of the state found themselves outside the legal communication.
The Nazi jurists, who adopted the "Fuhrer-principle", saw in the leader the sole creator of law. Therefore, they held this position: the question of what is right or wrong depends solely on the answer (decision) of the Fuhrer, because he is the only source of law for the German nation. In their opinion, the Fuhrer, in making appropriate decisions regarding law, formulates "people's laws of life" that are not subject to any abstract legal postulates. "Everything that is useful to the people is right; everything that harms them is not right." Here, another characteristic feature of the Nazi interpretation of law is clearly expressed - its direct placement at the service of political expediency, political expediency.
Having forced their anti-scientific, irrational legal understanding into the public consciousness (including legal theory), the National Socialists at the same time put an end to justice as such. First of all, they deprived the judiciary of its proper autonomy and independence. The Imperial Ministry of Justice established full control over the activities of the courts related to the issuance of decisions and sentences. The Fuhrer appropriated to himself the prerogatives of not only the supreme judge. The principle "no punishment without law" was replaced by the postulate "no crime without punishment". And this despite the fact that many elements of crimes were deliberately formulated in an extremely vague way; in this way, scope was opened for the arbitrariness of judges, the vast majority of them servilely serving the Nazi regime.
Fascist ideologists put forward the thesis that criminal behavior, even not falling under the signs of the crimes specified in the law, should be punished as soon as it is considered "punishable in accordance with the common sense of the people." Judges were instructed to make decisions "to a lesser extent based on the law and more on the principled idea that the offender should be removed from society." The destruction of justice by the Nazis was a natural result of the viciousness of their ideology and politics.
National Socialism in Germany (German fascism) was, and perhaps still is, the most aggressive form of National Socialist ideology. But, as historical experience shows, it can also exist and assert itself in other guises, it can mimic, lure people with other slogans and promises. However, in all cases, its spread and consolidation is mortally dangerous for civilization. It is necessary to clearly imagine the inhuman essence and manifestations of fascism of various shades in order to resist it and gain the upper hand over it.
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Along with the "Fuhrer-principle", the category "people", subjected to Nazi processing, was intended to eradicate the theory and practice of a democratic constitutional state. With its help, they tried, in particular, to overturn one of the foundations of liberalism: the view of a free independent individual as a priority value in a normal state-organized society. The Nazi creed was radically different, directly opposite: "You are nothing, your people are everything!"
German fascism did not create its own logically integral theoretical and legal system. The term "right", of course, was used. But in a qualitatively different sense than before. The anti-jurisprudence of the Nazi jurists expressed itself in many ways. In particular, through their denial of "normative jurisprudence", legal positivism as a teaching of a purely formalistic, supranational, ignoring the "material" terms of rights: "justice", "nationality", etc. Under the mute of rejection of legal positivism, the concepts of "personality", " subject of law", "legal property", "interest", "legitimacy", "legal capacity". Subjective law in the new era (ie, under the Nazi regime) is declared to be non-existent in general. It does not exist, because the Germans, "people's comrades", have only duties that are a hundred times more important than any powers.
On the basis of such nihilism, nothing worthwhile, constructive in the field of legal science can be done. That is why the set of statements of Nazi leaders about law almost entirely consists of empty formulas and platitudes, whose legal content is almost impossible to grasp. Little can be learned about the originality of the legal understanding of those, for example, who see the essence and tasks of law in the agreement of the feelings and will of all "comrades in law", who qualifies law as an outer shell capable of having any internal content, who evaluates Roman law as cold and individualistic and who actually does not go further than the absurdities cited and similar to them.
What, after all, is the specificity of National Socialist legal thinking? Recognition as a law-forming factor, the soil of the law of the race, the national spirit. The statement that there is no individual "natural right" belonging to the person, but only a people-racial, racially determined right. "Law is what the Aryans define as 'right'." The invention of the dependence of the nature of law on biological matter of a special kind (race), on the will of people ("Aryans"), cut from such matter, was needed "for the scientific" substantiation of the concept of "special law", common among Nazi jurists. Their reasoning on this topic, perhaps like no other, reveals a catastrophic (and terrible in its practical consequences) gap between Nazi jurisprudence and the fundamental principles of law, in particular, with such initial principles as legal equality, the equality of all before the law.
National Socialism in Germany (German fascism) was, and perhaps still is, the most aggressive form of National Socialist ideology. But, as historical experience shows, it can also exist and assert itself in other guises, it can mimic, lure people with other slogans and promises. However, in all cases, its spread and consolidation is mortally dangerous for civilization. It is necessary to clearly imagine the inhuman essence and manifestations of fascism of various shades in order to resist it and gain the upper hand over it.
8. Restored Natural Law
In the XX century. a new approach to the topic of natural and artificial law was developed by neo-Kantians (R. Stammler and others), who declared the beginning of justice to be absolute natural law. This beginning began to be perceived as a source and scale in assessing the historical movement of law towards an unattainable ideal. The interpretation of law, thus, began to include in its subject matter the inherent (implicit) norm requirement of justice and the appropriate adaptation of law to the values of the existing society. This is how the concept of natural law with a historically changing content arose.
The modern English jurist Lon Fuller believes that a legal norm should contain an intelligible goal and indicate the means to achieve it. In this sense, each rule of law is substantive (has an essential content, carries the meaning of due, and thus is a value). At the same time, each norm is instrumental; in this dimension, it determines the means to achieve the goal. In view of what has been said, the entire legal system is also value-laden. Clarifying his position, Fuller introduces a distinction between implicit (implied) and explicit (external, formalized, done) law.
Implicit law is customs and similar types of normative ordering of human communication, which are often devoid of verbal and symbolic designation and fixation. A right made is outwardly expressed exact rules, concluded in the norms and requirements of an agreement, statute, etc. Both explicit and implicit law are purposeful law, since they combine both what is and what is due. Unlike positivism, which declares almost any order of sovereign power to be the right, and unlike normativism, with its hierarchy of norms and the apex norm, and sociology, with its perception of the rule of law as a prediction of the possible behavior of the court, Fuller focuses on goal-setting in law, on the means of its implementations, which are also embedded in law, which gives law and the entire legal system the property of a value system. The most general purpose in law as a system is to direct and control human activity. But there are also more specific goals, which Fuller calls procedural (procedural) goals: in contract law they are one, in adjudication they are somewhat different. All varieties of "made" law must meet the following requirements: to be justified, to have the general character of their claims, not to be retroactive, to be clear and free from contradictions, and also sufficiently stable not to require the impossible. Their application must be in accordance with the aims and means laid down in this rule.
A legal norm, as a certain combination of a proper end and proper means, is a moral value. Thus, morality acquires a specific character in Fuller's natural law concept, while for the theory of "pure" law and "purely legal" interpretation of events and conflicts, it is an indifferent, insignificant characteristic.
Fuller fixes his continuity with the natural law tradition of ancient authors in the thesis that law is rationality, manifesting itself in human relations. Fuller does not oppose positive law and natural law, but only right and wrong.
A slightly different characterization of morality in law is given by Ronald Dworkin, author of Taking Rights Seriously (1972). Positive law must be evaluated not only from an instrumental point of view, but also from a moral point of view. Fundamental subjective rights form, in his opinion, those principles and criteria that should be taken as the basis of the moral dimension of law from the point of view of justice. The leading, main and defining principle is the right to equality, otherwise "the right to equal respect and treatment."
In the 50s. Arthur Kaufman (Natural Law and Historicity, 1957) spoke out against raising the element of historical variability in the content of law to an absolute and emphasized in this regard that the natural legal perception of law is based on the recognition and assumption of the constant presence and operation of non-positive legal principles. At the same time, he agreed with the perception of law as a historically changing phenomenon, the content of which includes some non-legal factors operating "here and now".
In the 70s. Kaumfman will renounce these positions and announce "the futility of natural law doctrines." During this period, he highly appreciates the critical and analytical possibilities in understanding the current law, which, in his opinion, demonstrates legal hermeneutics - a kind of philosophy of the legal language in its practical application. He considers the field of action of hermeneutics, first of all, the activity of the judge as a mouthpiece of real, and not only bookish law. The judge, one way or another, is obliged to compare the linguistic expressions of the legal norm and the legal content of the conflict, which the norm is intended to regulate. Thus, the ontological basis of natural law is transferred by Kaufman from the area of "regularities of being" to the area of "linguistic expression of being" and we are talking about a modified natural law - hermeneutic (by origin and interpretation) natural law. In other words, the law here is not considered to be quite sufficient to extract the rule in the process of developing a judicial decision, and only the judge is able to properly take into account the content and meaning of a particular conflict situation and take into account how the law corresponds to the state of affairs at a given time and in a given place. .
In the last third of the XX century. J. Rawls (Theory of Justice, 1972) and J. Finnis (Natural Law and Natural Law, 1980) presented new interpretations of the natural law tradition.
The concept of J. Fivnms is based on the reinterpretation of the ideas of Augustine, in particular the idea of teleologism. Finnis defines the meaning of human existence as the achievement by a person of a certain good or a set of benefits that he comprehends, evaluates and provides with the help of reason.
9. Integrative jurisprudence
At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. sociological philosophical and moral criticism of positivist dogmatic jurisprudence found a solution on an abstract, purely theoretical level in an effort to develop a synthetic theory of law (A. S. Yashchenko, P. G. Vinogradov and others). Even in the works of Chicherin, it was shown that history, dogma and the politics of law are three equally necessary directions in jurisprudence and state studies. A new confirmation of this was made in the fundamental work of A. S. Yashchenko "The Theory of Federalism. An Experience of the Synthetic Theory of the State" (Yuriev, 1912), where, along with the original interpretation of confederal and federal political unions with their polyarchic and dualistic principles, the idea was made that the synthetic nature of juridical (and political) phenomena is especially pronounced in federal political organizations. The long-standing disputes about who should be considered the sovereign power in the federation - the central government or the federated states - do not look quite correct, since sovereignty should be considered an attribute of the joint power activity of the federation and the states, the activity that appears as a kind of "synthetic continuity". Yashchenko saw the essence of federalism in a certain "balance between federal and local authorities, in which the federated parts retain a special, original independent participation in the governmental organization of federal sovereignty."
Law as a social phenomenon and as part of social experience is such an important element of social life, wrote P. G. Vinogradov (1854-1925), that in this capacity it performs no less important social functions than, say, the structure of the state or the method of division power in the state. He called his approach to the study of law synthetic, opposing it and separating it from the analytical method of J. Austin and his followers. The dangers of the analytical method are related to the fact that abstract concepts and terms are often perceived by analytic lawyers as if the question of these terms and their formal classifications is the essence of all jurisprudence. Ultimately, a special "world of concepts" is created, in which there are constant updates, criticism, protection and destruction of abstract structures. At one time, R. Iering ridiculed these "conceptual paradises." The early positivists, in the person of Comte and Spencer, proclaimed the arrival of a sociological science, which is to complete the circle of the natural sciences and crown the efforts of human knowledge. Modern thinkers, according to Vinogradov, are not so optimistic and put forward many reservations and restrictions.
The traditional natural law theory has little interest in the development of basic legal concepts, which in fact should form the initial basis of any legal theory. This section is best developed, according to Hall, in Kelsen's normativism. Taking into account the new role of the value principle in jurisprudence, integrative jurisprudence can also be called legal axiology. Values in law are what, in the rule of law, like a mentor, "forms mental states and external behavior." Exceptionally fruitful in this regard are, in his opinion, the definitions of law as an ethical category in its essence, given at the time by Plato and Aristotle.
Today there is a situation where law is increasingly perceived from the standpoint of political or moral pragmatism. In this situation, a special role in the matter of renewal and integration falls to the lot of historical jurisprudence.
10. Theories of elites, bureaucracy and technocracy
In the second half of the XIX century. In connection with the further centralization and bureaucratization of political life, a period of critical reassessment of the experience of representative government and liberal democratic values began. This was reflected in the theory of elites by Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) and in the concept of the political class by Gaetano Mosca (1858-1941). At the beginning of the XX century. the elitist approach to the study of politics was supplemented by the study of the influence of the so-called interest groups (A. Bentley) and a new look at the streamlining role of the bureaucracy in the exercise of power in society and the state (M. Weber). The concepts of technocracy and technodemocracy (D. Bell, M. Duverger and others) constituted a special kind of social group analysis of politics.
The first outline of the theory of the political class was the work of the 26-year-old Italian jurist G. Mosca "The Theory of Government and Parliamentary Government" (1884). A more detailed version of the justification of this concept was then presented in his work "Fundamentals of Political Science" (2 volumes, 1886, 1923). The theory of the elite was first detailed by V. Pareto in his "Treatise of General Sociology" (1916), in which sociological topics were combined with historical, political-ideological and socio-philosophical. Pareto was an engineer by training, but subsequently became deeply and thoroughly interested in political economy and sociology.
Both Italian thinkers proceeded from a very similar idea that in the sphere of the governing activity of each society there are two significantly separate groups - the ruling and the ruled. The biggest innovation they proposed when discussing this issue was the assertion that society is always ruled by an "insignificant minority" in the form of a "political class" (G. Mosca) or "ruling elite" (V. Pareto).
According to Mosca's explanations, "in all human societies that have reached a certain level of development and culture, political leadership in the broadest sense of the word, including administrative, military, religious and moral leadership, is constantly carried out by a special, i.e. organized, minority." This minority Mosca, apparently not without the influence of Marx, also called the ruling class, the leading class, the ruling class.
Pareto, in his justification of the concept of the ruling elite, proceeded from the assumption that every society can be divided into two strata, or layers - the highest stratum, in which the ruling ones usually reside, and the lower stratum, where the ruled are located. He complicates the usual dichotomy of classes (dominant and subordinate) and singles out two subgroups in the upper stratum (elite) - the ruling and non-ruling elites, and in the lower stratum he considers such a division unjustified. Thus, Pareto's fundamental difference looks like the difference between the elite and the masses.
The elite in a broad sense is very similar in meaning to the aristocracy (the power of the best) or, in a more modern formulation, to the meritocracy (the power of the worthy). Such an understanding proceeds from the notion that a narrow layer of the best of the best always finds itself in every isolated social activity or in the hierarchy of professional prestige. If we begin to assign index 10 to the one who does his job in the most excellent way, and 1 to the most negligent one and put zero to a complete incompetent, then such a division will receive its logic and justification. The area of activity indexed can be associated not only with politics or business, but also with education, poetic craft, etc. A clever swindler who has deceived many and has not yet fallen under the punishing sword of justice should also be given an index of 8, 9 or 10. The easiest way to index chess players is based on the number of wins and losses. However, in matters of government, the ruling elite should include those who directly or indirectly significantly influence government policy. The rest form a non-ruling elite. It is clear that a well-known chess player or a writer-ruler of thoughts are also included in the elite.
The contribution of Mosca and Pareto to modern political theory is mainly associated with the definition of the structure of power and focusing on the group nature of the exercise of power in any of its forms. The next stage in the development of such a methodology was the concept of the "iron law of the oligarchy" by Robert Michels (1876-1936), which, like the elite theory, arose in a polemic with Marxism. According to Michels's own generalization, "the formula for the need to replace one ruling stratum with another and the law of oligarchy derived from it as a necessary form of the existence of collective life in no way rejects or replaces the materialistic understanding of history, but only supplements it. There is no contradiction between the teaching, according to which history is a process of continuous class struggle, and by the doctrine according to which class struggle leads to the creation of a new oligarchy.
The oligarchy itself was explained by Michels as the product of the needs of the psychology of the masses and the psychology of the organization, and also in part by the peculiarities of the organizations themselves, which are subject to special "laws of the structures of organizations." This concept, which reproduced the Paretian principle of minority rule on the material of political party organizations, was expounded in the work "The Sociology of Party Organizations in Modern Democracy" (Vienna, 1911). One of the author's most shocking statements was the observation of the incompatibility of the principles of modern bureaucratic organizations and democracy: "Whoever speaks of an organization speaks of a tendency towards an oligarchy ... As the organization develops, democracy declines." In the context of a complex interaction of the technical properties of a political organization with the mental properties of the organized masses and their political leaders, there is a gradual transition from "spontaneous leadership" to "oligarchic leadership" through the stages of "professionalized" and "stabilized" leadership. This concept has found its main application in explaining the reasons for the decline of democracy and the "creation of a new political thinking" in the spirit of the theory of fascism, as well as in the modern sociology of leadership, party organizations and bureaucracy.
Adjacent to the elitist and oligarchic interpretation of modern political institutions and processes is another concept of the nature of politics and political power, which is most often referred to as the group approach to the study of politics, as well as the theory of "pressure groups", "interest groups", etc., which in to a certain extent expand and supplement the institutional framework of the "class approach" and "elite approach".
All the phenomena of public administration can be thought of as phenomena (and results) of the influence of "groups pressing against each other, shaping each other and highlighting new groups and group representations (organs or agencies of government) to mediate in ensuring social harmony." Differences in political regimes can now also be represented as differences in the types of group activities or in the technique of group pressure. Despotism and democracy are just different ways of representing interests. The characteristic of the real functioning of the system of "separated powers" has received a new configuration.
Bentley did not deny the merits of Marx's analysis of the role of classes in politics, but classified classes as groups with "multiple interests", prone to a stable existence and, because of this, not of great importance in the dynamic perception and analysis of political power activity, the perception of politics in dynamics. The concept of a "group approach" to politics has become an important methodological orientation in political sociology and political science throughout the 20th century, especially in its behavioral (behavioral) school of politics (G. Lasswell, D. Truman, G. Almond, and others).
Among the latest modifications of classical models and theoretical constructions of political power, the typology of power of Max Weber (1864-1920) occupies a special place. Following Mosca and Pareto, he saw the main feature of the functioning of parliamentary democracy in the methods of selecting political leaders and controlling the technically oriented administrative bureaucracy. Based on the experience of studying the general history of law, state and power, Weber put forward the concept of ideal types of power that can be found in different peoples in the course of history.
Historically, the first is patriarchal power (the power of the head of the clan, tribe, early state formations). The next variety is formed by charismatic power - it is associated with endowing the ruler with supernatural qualities and power capabilities, which is especially typical for cases of deification of the ruler, the creation of his "personality cult". The most modern and most promising is the rational-legitimate power. The main and main element of this power, its supporting structure is the professional bureaucracy.
At the heart of the technocratic concepts of domination (from the Greek "techne" and "kratos" - the power of craft, skill, skill) is a very old idea of a special role for people of knowledge in matters of domination and management.
The formation of modern concepts of technocratic leadership goes back to F. Bacon, Condorcet and Saint-Simon, who, together with some enlighteners of the Age of Reason, can be attributed to early technocratic utopian thinkers, propagandists of the special role of scientific knowledge. The methods of technocratic leadership of society are very expressively depicted in F. Bacon's "New Atlantis", which tells with great sympathy about a highly authoritative class of scientists who combine their scientific studies with participation in the management of an island state.
The next rise in technocratic mindsets and expectations was associated with the work of A. Saint-Simon. In Letters from a Resident of Geneva to Contemporaries, Saint-Simon stated that modern science is useful precisely because it makes it possible to predict, and therefore scientists are above all other people and professions. Together with the industrialists, they constitute the real flower of society, and if they are deprived, then the nation will in an instant turn into a body without a soul. The most useful representatives of technical knowledge are chemists, physicists, and mathematicians. Lawyers are also useful, but their influence, according to him, is only 1/8 of the political influence in society.
In the 20-30s. of the current century in the United States, in an atmosphere of deep economic depression, a movement of technical intelligentsia gained prominence, for the first time calling itself technocrats. Science, engineering, and the technology at hand, the technocrats said, were well placed to realize the age-old "American dream" of abundance and prosperity. However, human labor and machine technology are used within the framework of an outdated economic system, which, in fact, led to the depression. The leader of the movement G. Scott, a little-known energy engineer shortly before, proposed the creation of a large professional organization that would unite the efforts of scientists, educators, architects, sanitation experts, foresters, accountants and, finally, engineers with the task of rationalizing the existing industrial production. .
The technocratic movement did not last long. Roosevelt's New Deal, with its program of centralized control of the economy and an impressive set of anti-crisis measures, quickly blew the wind out of the technocracy's sails.
A new version of technocratic ideas was put forward by the American sociologist J. Burnham in 1941 in his book The Revolution of Managers. He stated in it that technocracy in the person of managers (managers, organizers) has become a social and political reality in a number of major modern states, such as the USA, Germany and the USSR. Thus, he believed, there was a tendency to replace capitalism and socialism with a "managing society", in which state functions would become functions of a political mechanism specially invented by managers.
Modern political and social forecasting has become a capacious area for all kinds of technocratic projects. Thus, the American sociologist B. Beckwith predicts that in the last stages of political evolution (including post-socialism), democracy will be replaced by the rule of experts, more precisely by organizations of experts. And it will be a more effective government than government by the electors and the people's representatives, because the experts are more talented, better educated, and more experienced in special matters (Board of Experts, 1972). D. Bell, author of the book "The Offensive of the Post-Industrial Society" (1973), believes that this emerging society, as a society "with a high scientific organization", will attach great importance to technocratic elements. J. Galbraith, author of the monograph "The New Industrial State" (1965) declared that the scientific-academic complex (government, university and private research institutions) is in the service of society, and not of private consumers. In addition, power in the economy, once based on land ownership and then transferred to capital, now has its source and holder "that fusion of knowledge and experience, which is the technostructure" of enterprises and institutions that deal with modern intellectual technology (computerized technique, systems analysis, modeling, operational research, etc.).
List usednoh literature
History of political and legal doctrines. Textbook for universities Ed. V.S. Nersesyants. Moscow NORMA - INFRA M. 1998.
History of political and legal doctrines. Ed. O.E. Leista M. Legal Literature. 1997.
Shulzhenko F.P., Andrusyak T.G. History of legal and political doctrines. - K .: Yurinkom Inter, 1999
History of political doctrines. Ed. O.V. Martyshina. - M.: Jurist, 1996
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I'm not one of those who recognize the priests,
Who unrequitedly believes in God,
Who is ready to break his forehead,
Praying at every church threshold.
I don't like slave religion
Submissive from century to century,
And my faith in the miraculous is weak -
I believe in the knowledge and power of man!
I know that on the right path,
Here on Earth, without parting with the body,
Not us - so someone must come after all,
To truly divine limits!
/WITH. Yesenin./
The following analysis will not leave indifferent any of those who carefully read this story, which will help everyone get an answer to the question posed in the title ...
It should be said that the true meaning of the word BRA is enlightenment by knowledge, i.e. self-development and self-education, and any religion is a repeated social movement based on the fantasies of the writers of a particular religion in order to subjugate easily manipulated inhabitants who have lost the ability to develop ..
Old Testament. Analysis. Where did the Judeo-Christian God come from and what are his goals
Let's try to understand the history of the appearance on earth of that same God, the causes and purposes of his appearance. Let's do this on the basis of the original source - the Words of God himself, which he says to his people (we quote and comment in chronological order):
"... Of the nations, there was no one with me, and I trampled them in my anger, and trampled them in my fury. Their blood splashed on my garments, and I stained all my garments. For the day of vengeance is in my heart. And I trampled I am the nations in my anger, and crushed them in my fury, and poured out their blood on the ground." (The book of the prophet Isaiah ch.63 p.3-6)
Here we see that initially this God was a God without his own people. Those. there were already peoples, but he had no people. It evoked a kind of incomprehensible rage in him. Here he appears before us as a kind of monster embittered at the world, spattered with human blood from head to toe. He takes revenge on the peoples for what they have not recognized and rejected. Apparently, having despaired of turning the people to himself, he decided to create a people for himself, and it is clear that we are talking about the Jews, and it is they who he calls his slaves:
"... I decided to form this people for myself. It will proclaim my Glory. The vineyard of the house of the Lord of Hosts is the house of Israel, and the men of Judah are my favorite planting. You are mine, for I am the Lord your God. You are my servant, I formed you. " (Isaiah)
God formed a people, but how did he do it? Let's listen to God himself:
"... Thus spoke the Lord God to the daughter of Jerusalem: your root and your homeland are in the land of Canaan; your father is an Amorite, and your mother is a Hittite; ... At your birth, you were thrown into the field, in contempt for your life, on the day your birth ... And I passed by, and saw you, thrown to the floor in your blood ... And I said to you: "Live in your blood" ... You grew up, reached excellent beauty, your breasts rose, and your hair grew up... And I passed by you, and saw you, and behold, it was your time, the time of love; and I stretched out my garments on you, and covered your nakedness; and I swore to you and entered into an alliance with you, says Lord God, you have become mine."
This is God speaking to her, the daughter of Israel (the woman). It turns out that he picked up some girl thrown out in the field, raised for himself, and took possession of her as a husband (in the Bible there are references to a certain "thrown cornerstone" that will become "... at the forefront." One can draw an analogy that this new the girl became the foundation of the new nation). And children were born from this union.
"And I took your sons and your daughters whom you bore me..."
A completely earthly family plot develops, where God looks at the girl with completely masculine eyes, breasts ... hair ... beauty ... And he takes care of her, giving silks and jewelry, and takes possession of her as a woman, and they give birth to children like on earth. .. but further on we see a completely earthly continuation, and jealousy is inherent in God. He says to his wife:
"... taking advantage of your glory, she began to fornicate and squandered your fornication on every passer-by, giving herself to him; ... She fornicated with the sons of Egypt, your neighbors, people of great stature, and multiplied your fornications, angering me "... for that, behold, I will gather all your lovers with whom you delighted and whom you loved, with all those whom you hated, and I will gather them from everywhere against you, and I will reveal your nakedness before them, and they will see all your shame; ... I will deliver you into their hands and they will destroy your harlots, and they will scatter your high places, and they will rip off your garments, and they will take your garments, and they will leave you naked and uncovered. And they will call an assembly against you, and stone you, and cut you with their swords."
Here we can pay attention to a very interesting point. This and much more was told to her by God, the almighty, strong ... However, he himself does not understand his wife, but prefers to set her lovers on her. What is this, sophisticated revenge? Rather, something else, "show-offs" ... This god, in fact, cannot do anything to a person with his own hands, and therefore here we see a moment of reprisal by proxy hands, the people themselves. We see a similar pitting of peoples by the same gods as this one in the example of the construction of the Tower of Babel. Then they said "... let's go down and interfere with them.", after which people lost their common language, mutual understanding and the massacre began. We can again conclude that these Gods have no power over a person, and they themselves cannot do anything to him, and the only way to destroy someone is to incite another.
But back to the topic, and continue. His children also do not obey him and he has no power over them.
"... I raised and raised up my sons, and they rebelled against Me... They rejected the law of the Lord of hosts... They forgot their God... Return rebellious children, I will heal your disobedience... For having forgotten their God the wrath of the Lord will be poured out on his people, and he will stretch out his hand against them, and he will smite them, so that the mountains will tremble, and their corpses will roll in the streets like dung."
What happens? He took a woman for himself, raised her, took possession, created his own people, but earlier he was angry, because other peoples did not recognize him, and now his wife walks with anyone, and his children have turned away from him. He is not recognized again. And in general, the fact that everyone turns away from him, and then he takes revenge on everyone, runs like a thick red thread throughout the Bible. He frightens everyone and tries to suppress, but everyone does not pay attention to him, and he again takes revenge - either floods, then ulcers, then he will send something else. Well, somehow from the very beginning everything went wrong with people, he doesn’t know how to build relationships ...
"... What else to beat you, who continue to persist? Your whole head is in ulcers, and your whole heart is wasted, from the sole of your foot to the top of your head, you have no healthy place. Ulcers, spots, festering wounds, your land is devastated, cities are burned fire... But the people do not turn to those who beat them, and they do not resort to the Lord of hosts. Will not my soul take revenge on such a people for this?..."
Is this what we call "spirituality"? Revenge, anger, the pursuit of power, this is what all spiritual people have tried to overcome in themselves at all times. Here we see something completely different. We see how God punishes his own children, his wife, his own people that he created for himself ... Here we see the line of his behavior, what drives him, his inner essence, his "spirituality". And further, how does he carry out revenge in relation to his people, his children - the Jews?
“... And I will send four kinds of plagues on them, says the Lord: a sword to kill, and dogs to tear, and the birds of the air and the beasts of the field to devour and destroy; ... and I will give them to bitterness to all the kingdoms of the earth; ... therefore I will stretch out my hand on you and destroy you ... I am tired of having mercy; ... I wave them with a fan over the gates of the earth; I deprive them of their children, I destroy My people; but they do not return from their ways .... I will make you small among the nations, despised among men..."
Time has passed...
"... You have made us an abomination among the nations... The Lord gave a command about Jacob to his enemies, surround him, make Jerusalem an abomination among them... Who delivered Jacob to ruin and Israel to robbers, is not the Lord?..."
It turns out directly the Holocaust... Embitterment and incitement of other peoples against their own is provoked by their own God, the Creator Father, against their own children, as revenge for disobedience and disobedience. What claims from the Jews can be to us? After all, it was their God who arranged everything so that we hated them and destroyed them. In fact, Hitler is right, he fulfilled the will of the Lord ... Yes, even before Hitler, all the kings and peoples drove the Jews from their territories, there is historical evidence. Further, even more interesting, by the way applicable to our present day:
"... And I will give them youths as leaders, and the children will rule over them; The young man will arrogantly rise above the elder, and the commoner over the noble"
The civil war, the cultural revolution in China ... Why go far, the policy of rejuvenating personnel in our days in all states. Children are given power in their hands, having first convinced them that they are smarter than their elders, and that it is not good for them to listen to these elders. They say they have outlived their own ... Here is the basic principle by which peoples are played off, both inside and outside. And it's God himself speaking.
***************
Subsequently, their guides set out detailed instructions for the Jews in distributed texts: "25 principles of the Order of the Illuminati (1776), "Protocols of the Elders of Zion", "Catechism of a Jew in the USSR"
***************
"... And you shall eat the fruit of your womb, the flesh of your sons and your daughters, whom the Lord your God has given you... And I will feed them with the flesh of their sons and the flesh of their daughters; and each shall eat the flesh of his neighbor... Hands tender-hearted women boiled their children to be food for them at the time of the death of the daughter of my people; ... fathers will eat sons among you, and sons will eat their fathers; ... And you will go crazy from what your eyes will see yours"
Holy Scripture sir. What is there to do. Reading is not for the faint of heart. The modern church still (albeit symbolically) makes us PARTICIPANT (rite of communion) in cannibalism when we eat the body of Christ and drink his blood. The subconscious mind doesn’t give a damn that this is wine and prosvirka, your inner “I” is involved in cannibalism, since you allow the physical action associated with the ritual of eating flesh, even if it’s symbolic ... But all of the above is essentially nonsense, compared to what the plans of this very God on earth. Why did those same Jews disobey their Lord, who they were, and what was the reason for their disobedience? Let's not invent anything, and listen to what God himself says about this:
"... Your altars will be laid waste, Your pillars in honor of the sun will be broken... And I will lay the corpses of Israel before their idols."
Here, as never before, comments are superfluous. The Jews were sun-worshippers, as in principle the Slavs, our distant ancestors. It is here that it becomes clear why they were so disobedient to Him ... Some incomprehensible person came, threatens, declared himself God, imposes a new Faith ... In fact, Christians did the same as this god did when Christianization was going on Rus'. During Christianization, 3/4 of the population of then Rus' was stupidly slaughtered, and the Christians, as God taught them, did not spare either women or children. And Chikatilo himself could envy the sophistication of torture and punishments of the Inquisition. So, because the Jews worshiped the Sun, and refused to obey, the wrath of that very newly minted God, who came to impose a new faith, was brought down on them:
"... Lord of Hosts, honor his Holy One;... and he will be a light, and a stumbling block, and a rock of temptation for both houses of Israel... A noose and a snare for the inhabitants of Jerusalem. And many will stumble into them, and fall, and broken, and entangled in a net, and caught..."
Yeah... So, my wife walks, the children do not obey, I'm already tired of exterminating them... Shouldn't I try to change the tactics of enslaving my own people? Let's try, in addition to strength, to use cunning, deceit, deceit and other base emotions. And after the lapse of time, when they were already "caught in a net," God said to them:
"... By measure you punished Him when You Rejected Him, and through this the iniquity of Jacob was blotted out... And the fruit of this will be the removal of sin from him, when He turns all the stones of the altars into pieces of lime, and the oak forests and the idols of the Sun will no longer stand ".
So...God has set a price for these people to atone for their "guilt". The price for the redemption of this people before their God (whom they have already recognized) is the complete destruction of the cult of the sun on the planet. It turns out that the Jews, once themselves being sun-worshippers and caught in the net of deception by their God, must destroy the previously friendly peoples in faith, and their "Pagan" (and to be precise, VEDIC) cults of sun worship.
It only remains to add here that, according to the church, before Christianization, all the peoples inhabiting the earth were Pagans and Barbarians, and only thanks to the church have they now become normal people. So, after they do this (and they have already practically done it):
"... The Lord will return to himself the REMAINING of his people, which remains ... I will forgive those who remain alive ... Then for the remnant of His people there will be a great road."
Class ... He exterminated his recalcitrant people, choked with ulcers, spread rot, mocked, set each other on, caught him in a net, forced him to obey, promised to forgive the survivors if they destroyed all peoples with Vedic cults and converted them to their new faith , and after all this gives them the following phrase:
"... not for you I did it, but for the sake of My Holy Name"
Well, God is God. What conclusions can be drawn after all this? He not only hates his people (he does not work for them and not in their name), but also all the peoples on earth. He himself cannot do anything against people, and therefore sets his own people against other peoples, for which he created his people. This is just a meaningless cattle for him, doomed to death, and is only a tool to achieve his own goal - complete power and domination on earth. But what reward awaits the people who have done what God demanded of them?
"... Darkness will cover the earth and darkness over the peoples, and the Lord will rise above you. And his glory will appear before you. And the peoples will come to your light. The wealth of the peoples will pass to you ... All of them will come and bring gold ... Sons of foreigners they will build your walls, and their kings will serve you. And your gates will always be open, they will not be closed day or night, so that the wealth of the nations may be brought to you. And you will be called priests of the Lord, you will enjoy the wealth of the nations, and be glorified by their glory. ."
I think comments are unnecessary. As for the church, it has long ago appropriated someone else's glory, calling itself ORTHODOX, having appropriated all the exploits and achievements of the Slavic peoples. Do you know, for example, the icon - "George the Victorious", where a certain uncle sitting on a horse pierces a snake, a dragon with a spear? So, the uncle's name was not George at all, and none of this icon is Christian. This canvas was painted in honor of the event, which was 7520 years ago, when our ancient ancestors, the Slavs, defeated the people of the "Great Dragon" (now China), and concluded a peace treaty in the Star Temple (SMZH). Christianity in those days did not smell at all. As for gold and property, everyone already knows that the current system is built in such a way that everything belongs to banks and corporations, and all peoples have long been in credit slavery to a small handful of people who own 80% of all money on the planet, and the peoples those who bring them money, day and night, have long been in credit slavery and dependence on the current technocratic, consumerist system. Isn't that what the next sentence is about? -
"... The name of the Lord comes from afar, his wrath burns to dispel the nations to exhaustion;... And there will be a bridle in the jaws of the peoples that leads to error. And you will have songs, as on the night of a sacred holiday, and gladness of the heart, as one who goes with a pipe to the mountain of the Lord, to the stronghold of Israel."
Islam, Judaism, Christianity is a bridle leading people to error. And those who dressed her - rule the world and have all the wealth and glory of the peoples, and they have fun and a holiday. Basically everything is as God said.
"Come, peoples, listen and heed, peoples! let the earth hear and everything that fills it, the universe and everything that is born in it! For the wrath of the Lord is on all peoples, and His fury is on all their hosts. to the slaughter. And their slain will be scattered, and a stench will rise from their corpses, and the mountains will become wet with their blood. Those who sanctify and purify themselves in the groves, one by one, eat swine meat and abominations and mice, all will perish, ..."
I wonder what he's talking about here? Isn't it about us? Is it not about the ancestors of our Slavs, whose groves and oak forests were a sacred place, and there they underwent purification? The fact that he hates all the peoples of the earth, and is going to destroy them, including his own, we have already understood. And who does he love, or rather, who does he need? What is he striving for? What is the result of all this undertaking?
"... All the peoples before Him are as nothing, - He considers less insignificance and emptiness; ... I will completely destroy all the peoples among whom I scattered you, but I will not destroy you; ... The proud looks of a person will droop, and the lofty human humiliated; ... I will look: on the humble and contrite in spirit and on the one who trembles at My word ... Stop you relying on a person, for what does he mean ... "
The history of the Slavs on this planet has more than one hundred thousand years. Our distant Ancestors have long been aware of both the so-called "Greys" and their owners KOSHCHEY. Our distant ancestors have long been waging war in the universe (Great Assa) with these very Koshchei, and the last one ended about 160,000 years ago, when the Koshchei destroyed the planet Deya (now the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter), Our distant ancestors saved the remnants of the population from this planet and dragged the moon of this planet, Fatta, to the earth, and launched it into orbit. On this moon, these same koshchei formed a Base to seize the earth, but together with this moon They were destroyed by Our distant ancestor Tarkh (Dazhdbog), the son of Perun. It was 111,818 years ago... But these koshchei not only cause trouble to us. Here is what Perun said last visiting the earth 40,000 years ago:
Perun the Wise answered them:
Know, Guardians of the Gates of the Interworld,
in Svarga the Great Assa is performed...
In Makosh, in Rada, in Swati and in Ras
now the Great War is taking place,
in it with Alien howls Hell,
Light Gods from Prav
entered into a cruel Sich ...
They protect Svarga the Great...
and the World is cleansed Hall after Hall,
from the warriors of Gloom, from the Dark World...
From those evil enemies
that blooming lands turned into dust,
that the blood of innocent creatures was shed,
neither young nor old were spared anywhere...
Therefore, many Gates closed,
so that foreign enemies do not hit
to the Light Lands of Svarga the Great...
and the fate of Troara did not befall them,
that in the Rada of the Light,
She lit up the world with wise love...
Now Troara is deserted, without Life...
The Multi-gate circle is torn apart,
many Needles have been tumbled down by mountains...
and the ashes of the fires lie seven fathoms...
The same image, sad, dull
I saw in Arcoln, on Rutte-Earth,
that used to shine in Mokosh the Light ...
And here is How Perun says about the Grays and Kashchei, Predicting the future of the Slavic Clans, Where he predicts the events of the pre-Moiseev times, and ends with the Times of Christ, predicting the birth of a new trend, of which Christianity became a part.
But foreign enemies will come from the World of Darkness,
and begin to speak to the Children of Men
flattering words, covered with lies.
And they will pervert the old and the young,
and the daughters of men shall be taken to be their wives...
They will irritate among themselves ...
and between people... and between animals...
And they will begin to teach
all the peoples of Midgard-Earth,
but those who will not heed their words,
and follow the deeds of the lowly Outlanders,
betrayed by torment with suffering ...
By their gray skin, you will recognize Foreign enemies...
Their eyes are the color of Darkness, and they are bisexual,
and can be a wife, like a husband.
Each of them can be a father or mother ...
They paint their faces,
to be like Children of Men...
and never take off their garments,
lest their bestial nakedness be exposed...
Lies and flattery unrighteous
they will capture many edges of Midgard-Earth,
as they already did on other Earths,
in many Worlds in the Times of the past Great Assa,
but they will be defeated
and exiled to the land of Man-Made Mountains,
where people with the skin of the color of Gloom will live
and descendants of the Heavenly Clan
coming from the land of God Nya.
And the children of Man will begin to teach them to work,
so that they can grow their own crops
and vegetables to feed their children...
But the lack of desire to work,
unite foreigners,
and they will leave the country of the Man-Made Mountains,
and will settle on all edges of Midgard-Earth.
And they will create their faith,
and declare themselves sons of the One God,
and their blood and their children's will become
sacrifice to your god
so that there is a blood union
between them and their god...
And the Light Gods will send to them
Wanderers of the Many Wise,
for they have neither Spirit nor Conscience.
And Strangers will listen to their Wise Word,
and having heard, they will bring the life of Wanderers,
as a sacrifice to your god...
And they will create the Golden Tour,
as a symbol of his power,
and they will worship him
just like your god...
And the Gods will send to them... the Great Wanderer,
the love of the bearer, but the priests of the Golden Tour
give him a martyr's death.
And after his death, they will proclaim him GOD...
and create a new Faith, built on lies,
blood and oppression...
And they will declare all nations inferior and sinful,
and call before the face of the God they created to repent,
and ask for forgiveness for the deeds done and not done ...
WITH With my article I raise the main Questions. Who are you, Slavs or Jews? Who is your God, whom do you serve, turning our planet into an industrial dump, supporting the prosperity of Banks and Corporations by your actions, growing hatred in your hearts against your own Slavic Brothers? Why do you indulge the Jewish God in his affairs? Do you want to earn his mercy by betraying your own Brothers, Fathers, Ancestors, Gods??? Think for yourself, my dear readers.
/according to the materials of the periodical press/
Spencer believed that society exists for
+: the benefits of all its members
-: industrial development
-: ensuring control of the higher layers over the lower
-: mobilization of resources for the benefit of the state.
G. Spencer adhered to the ideas:
+: individualism
- protectionism
-: etatism
-: racism
F. Nietzsche considered the best form of government
- monarchy
+: aristocracy
- democracy
- tyranny.
L1: G. Spencer
L2: L. Gumplovich
L3: L. Blanc
L4: R. Iering
R1: England
R2: Austria-Hungary
R3: France
R4: Germany
"Jurisprudence of interests" is the name of the doctrine
+: R. Ieringa
-: L. Gumplovich
-: J. Austin
-: G. Spencer
Law developed in a fierce class struggle, according to
+: R. Ieringa
-: B. Chicherina
-: J. Austin
-: G. Spencer
According to B. Chicherin, the greatest evil in Russia comes from
-: emperor
-: revolutionaries
+: bureaucracy
L1: Chaadaev
L2: Hegel
L3: Voltaire
L4: Proudhon
R1: Philosophical letters
R2: Philosophy of Law
R3: Philosophical Letters
R4: Philosophy of Poverty
According to F. Nietzsche, “the will to die” is possessed
-: ruling layers
+: lower strata
L2: Hegel
L4: Iering
R1: Poverty of philosophy
R2: Philosophy of Law
R3: Thus Spoke Zarathustra
R4: Fight for the Right
Russian liberals in the 1860s and 70s were supporters of the convocation **** of the Council
+: Zemsky
The founder of Russian liberalism is considered
+: P. Chaadaev
-: B. Chicherin
-: K. Pobedonostsev
-: N. Karamzin
The sequence of activities of the leaders of the social movement and thought in Russia
1: Westerners
2: N. Chernyshevsky
3: "People's Will"
4: Marxists
The founder of Russian Marxism is
-: M. Bakunin
-: P. Lavrov
+: G. Plekhanov
-: V. Ulyanov (Lenin)
A supporter of building socialism on the basis of the peasant community was ***
+: A. Herzen
The political ideas of N. Chernyshevsky are set out in the work
+: What to do?
-: Who is guilty?
-: Past and thoughts
-: Cities and years
The model for the workshop of Vera Pavlovna N. Chernyshevsky were the ideas
+: C. Fourier
-: R. Owen
-: K. Marx
-: A. Saint-Simon
The publisher of The Bell was
+: A. Herzen
-: V. Belinsky
-: N. Dobrolyubov
-: P. Lavrov
The sequence of appearance of political and legal theories in Western Europe in the 19th century.
1: revolutionary utopian communism
2: Marxism
3: anarchism
4: democratic socialism
Classical Marxism sees the state and law as
-: the main public institutions
+: add-on
- two antagonistic phenomena.
Correspondence between political theory and the time of its birth
L1: Marxism
L2: utopian socialism
L3: liberalism
L4: Leninism
According to Marx, instead of a bourgeois society, an association will appear, where the free development of all will become a condition for free development ***
+: each
Communism, according to the teachings of Marxism, involves the implementation of the principle: "From each according to his ability to each according to ***."
Needs
Socialism, according to the teachings of Marxism, involves the implementation of the principle: "From each according to his ability to each according to ***."
The sequence, according to the teachings of Marxism, the emergence of socio-economic formations
1: primitive communal
2: slaveholding:
3: feudal
4: bourgeois
5: communist
Correspondence between the main strata of society and the socio-economic formation
L1: primitive communal
L2: slave
L3: feudal
L4: bourgeois
R1: shepherds, farmers
R2: slaves, slave owners
R3: peasants, landowners
R4: workers, capitalists
The main work of Marxism is called the "Manifesto of the *** Party"
+: communist
Correspondence between political theory and its author
L1: communism
L2: Menshevism
L3: anarchism
L4: Bolshevism
R3: Kropotkin
Correspondence between the concept in the teaching of Marxism and its definition
L2: Superstructure
L3: Proletarian Revolution
L4: Dictatorship of the proletariat
R1: set of industrial relations
R2: the totality of such phenomena as the state, law, morality
R3: violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie
R4: concentration of all state and political power in the hands of the proletariat
Marx called the state of the transitional period between capitalism and communism the state
+: dictatorships of the proletariat
-: public
- socialist
- democratic
Correspondence between the title of the document and the program outlined in it
L1: "Communist Manifesto"
L2: "Plebeian Manifesto"
L3: "Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility"
R1: the program of action of the proletariat in the course of the revolutionary reorganization of society
R2: France's communist transformation program
R3: registration of the privileges of the Russian elite
R4: the beginning of bourgeois constitutionalism in Russia
Correspondence between the actor and the direction of social thought
L1: K. Pobedonostsev
L2: B. Chicherin
L3: P. Kropotkin
L4: P. Lavrov
R1: conservative-protective
R2: liberalism
R3: anarchism
R4: Populism
Of the achievements of contemporary Western civilization, K. Pobedonostsev advocated the use of only
+: factories
- constitutions
- universal suffrage
+: P. Struve
-: V. Lenin
-: V. Zasulich
-: G. Plekhanov
"Anti-Marx" in the Western tradition is called
+: M. Weber
-: F. Nietzsche
-: O. Gierke
-: H. Chamberlain,
Political and legal doctrines in the modern world (twentieth century)
The collection of works of the Russian intelligentsia, which assessed the events of the revolution of 1905-1907, is called
-: "From the depths"
-: "From Marxism to Idealism"
-: "The origins and meaning of Russian communism."
+: N. Berdyaev
+: B. Kistyakovsky
-: M. Gorky
-: G. Plekhanov
The doctrine of the intensification of the class struggle as socialism was built was developed by
+: I. Stalin
-: V. Lenin
-: N. Bukharin
-: L. Trotsky
The doctrine of the permanent revolution was developed by
-: I. Stalin
-: V. Lenin
-: N. Bukharin
+: L. Trotsky
Compared the Communist Party with the Order of the Crusaders
+: I. Stalin
-: V. Lenin
-: N. Bukharin
-: P. Sorokin
Correspondence between the theorist and the Soviet legal concept
L1: law as an instrument of the dictatorship of the proletariat
L2: law - the order of social relations
L3: exchange concept of law
L4: The psychological concept of class law
R1: D. Kursky
R2: P. Stuchka
R3: E. Pashukanis
R4: M. Reisner
Ash-Shura, according to M. Abdo, is a synonym
+: democracy
-: despotism
- oligarchies
-: totalitarianism
J. Afghani called *** as the main factor of unity
+: religion
The last serious attempt to develop the theory of the Caliphate was made by
-: J. Afghani
-: A. Razek
The secondary rules, according to Hart, do not include:
-: recognition rules
-: change rules
+: doctrinal rules
- Rules for adjudication.
The political and legal doctrine of L. Dyugi is
-: analytical theory of law
- positivist normalism
+: solidarity
- Sociological jurisprudence.
The tripartite system of the Nazi political community did not include:
-: state
-: movement
The number of "primary goods" according to J. Rawls does not include:
-: Liberty
- equal opportunity
+: universal education
- a certain level of material wealth.
J. Maritain participated in the development of a document adopted by the UN in 1948, called "Universal **** human rights"
+: declaration
Sequence in the chronological order of appearance of political movements in the 20th century.
1: communism
3: national socialism
L1: Kelsen
L2: Maritain
R1: "Pure Doctrine of Law"
R2: "Human rights and natural law."
R3: "Course of Constitutional Law"
R4: Fundamentals of the Sociology of Law
Correspondence between the definition of law and its author
L1: the totality of mental experiences of duty and responsibility
L2: highly specialized form of social control
L3: set of legal norms, hierarchy of norms
L4: social phenomenon, general regulator of people's behavior
R1: L. Petrazhitsky
R2: R. Pound
R3: G. Kelsen
R4: J. Maritain
Correspondence between the developed theory of law and the thinker
L1: psychological
L2: sociological
L3: normative
L4: Neo-Thomistic
R1: L. Petrazhitsky
R2: E. Erlich
R3: G. Kelsen
R4: J. Maritain
Correspondence between doctrine and theorist
L1: I. Stalin
L2: A. Hitler
L3: B. Mussolini
L4: Mao Zedong
R1: Soviet Marxism-Leninism
R2: National Socialism
+: P. Sorokin
-: E. Erlich
-: N. Berdyaev
-: P. Struve
The elements of the concept of L. Dyugi are (two correct answers)
+: institutionalism
+: syndicalism
- clericalism
- Monarchism
Correspondence between the thinker and the state in which he lived and worked
L1: G. Mosca
L2: P. Sorokin
L3: L. Dugi
L4: R. Pound
R1: Italy
R2: Russia
R3: France
Representatives of the theory of natural law in the 20th century. are (two correct answers)
+: J. Maritain
-: P. Bourdieu
The term "ruling elite" was introduced
+: V. Pareto
-: G. Mosca
-: M. Weber
The rules of conduct according to P. Sorokin do not include
-: permitted
+: predefined
"Thousand-Year Reich" lasted **** years
According to Nazi theory, the Fuhrer is the leader
+: charismatic
-: traditional
- bureaucratic
- democratic
The Fuhrer personifies the *** of the people
"You are nothing, your people are everything" is the principle
+: Nazism
-: communism
- solidarity
- syndicalism
The number of supporters of the concept of solidarism in law does not include
-: E. Durkheim
R. Pound understands law in action (2 correct answers)
+: law and order
+: set of prescriptions
- penal system
- philosophy of law
L. Petrazhitsky, in addition to official law, distinguishes (2 correct answers)
+: book law
+: contract law
- right of the strong
- right of the crowd
Law is rationality, manifesting itself in human relations, according to
+: L. Fuller
-: G. Kelsen
-: P. Sorokin
-: J. Maritain
The term "political class" was introduced
-: V. Pareto
+: G. Mosca
-: M. Weber
The types of capital according to P. Bourdieu do not include
-: economic
-: symbolic
-: political
+: religious
1Publications marked with * are available in the library fund of the KF Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “RGUP”.
2Publications marked with * are available in the library fund of the KF Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “RGUP”
3Publications marked with * are available in the library fund of the KF Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “RGUP”