By the end of the 20th century, thanks to the development of scientific and technological progress in human society, a system of mass communication is being formed, which incorporates the latest technical possibilities for disseminating information to an almost unlimited audience, which allows it to become a real force influencing the formation of the entire system of spiritual values and needs of mankind. It should be recognized that the system of mass communication is becoming the dominant factor in modern culture. This destroys it as a relatively equilibrium system, giving rise to a number of new phenomena; some of them are so unusual that they hardly fit into the framework of traditional ideas about culture.
In order to understand this, it is necessary to conduct a comparative analysis of the state of culture before the formation of the mass communication system and its current state, as well as changes in intercultural communication itself (communication between different cultures).
Thus, we can say that culture is a contradictory formation, which is in relative unity, but inside which there are constantly contradictory tendencies, expressing relatively opposite essences, two vectors of self-realization of each individual's creativity. On the one hand, in the process of creative activity, a person relies on the stereotypes, traditions and norms of life that are characteristic of most people in their ordinary lives. In this regard, the characteristics of individual life, the living environment and conditions determine the form and nature of a person's everyday life. On the other hand, creative activity can take place far from standard life stereotypes and ideas, can be removed from reality, creating as a result a special “elitist” cultural layer, within which general cultural and universal values arise, on which society is oriented. “Only together, in mutual mediation and interdependence, do both of these principles constitute social reality; only together, in unceasing interaction, do they constitute the life of mankind.”
One vector of culture is directed, in the words of Knabe, "up", forming some general ideas and values in the sphere of the spirit (science, art, religion, etc.). The other one is “down”, fixing the everyday stereotypes of a person’s life both at the individual and at the level of microgroups. Bakhtin, long before modern postmodernism with its philosophy of the body, considered such an opposition between the upper and lower parts of culture as a special tradition of opposing the top and bottom of a particular person. The upper culture was abstract, spiritual, experienced and removed from real life. The grassroots, on the contrary, was corporeal, concrete, not only experienced by the individual, but also embodied by him.
The abstract-spiritual, refined part of culture is gradually taking shape in the history of human civilization as CULTURE "with a capital letter". It is fundamentally removed from everyday life, even from a specific person. It requires some preparation for its perception. Finally, she requires a certain form of organization of space for the reproduction of her samples. When we talk about culture, we most often have in mind culture in the first sense, while its second sense seems to be too insignificant. Such an understanding of culture is so typical that sometimes it may seem that there is no other culture.
The audience associated with the "upper" culture is elitist and limited, but it is life circumstances that give some people the opportunity to join such a high culture, while others do not. The values of the “upper” culture, due to the fact that they have taken a refined form, limit themselves from outside influences for a longer period, they are easier to maintain artificially, to cultivate, which makes it possible for them to be preserved almost in their “original form”. Even the perception of such cultural values requires not only some internal preparation, special literacy, but also special premises for this, which is also a factor limiting the scope of its distribution. Thus, an idealized system of cultural values is being created, which, due to the above circumstances, is quite stable, is wary of any changes in it, and is truly the basis of universal culture. Everyday (non-elitist, grassroots, etc.) culture, in whose consumption of products the largest number of people are included, due to its openness, was less stable and, consequently, more subject to change.
So, culture as a system is a dialectical unity of contradictory aspects that are in impulsive interaction. A high CULTURE ensures continuity, unity, creates a system of values, while a "grassroots" culture ensures the self-development of the system, its renewal. In this sense, culture is dialogical already by virtue of the presence in it of two interacting cultures, more precisely, dialogue is a form of its existence. But this dialogue is carried out within a single whole. “Dialogue embodies the dialectic of development, a dialectic open to the future and in this sense historically positive – positive both in the objective, philosophical and historical sense, and in the subjective-human, moral sense” . Therefore, the opposition of "upper" and "lower" culture is a cultural opposition, does not go beyond its scope.
Naturally, as in any contradictory process, the unity of the parties cannot do without attempts to suppress one side of the other, one (in this case) culture of the other. Thus, for example, attempts to suppress "low" culture on the part of "high" culture are often expressed in the fact that everything related to the first is declared to be a certain area of fundamentally uncultured. Ordinary life is understood as something unworthy of a cultured person, as if the latter does not eat, drink, give birth to children, etc. It is, as it were, a periphery, the wrong side of being (Knabe), which must be hidden, covered. This culture of cover, reaching the point of absurdity, was described in a grotesque form by Gogol, fixing the intracultural opposition between everyday life, everyday life, simplicity of behavior, reflected in the language of a normal person, and its semantic invariant, supposedly reflecting the existence of a person in a "high" culture. There is also a reverse pseudo-progressive movement in culture, when attempts are made to oust reference images from it: the latter are assessed as outdated and not in keeping with the spirit of the times.
Local culture as a complete holistic symbolic system of cultural meanings, reflects the completeness of the existence of man and humanity in the products of his creativity. Completeness (which postmodernism does not like so much) is generally one of the principles of classical culture. In music it is a symphony, in literature it is a novel or short story, in architecture it is a sustained style of buildings, in philosophy it is an all-encompassing concept. "Completeness" is inevitably associated with limitation (at least in the form of boundaries separating from other objects), which is most clearly manifested in literature. A complete literary text is a certain standard of a text in general, a certain complete meaning, which is opposed by the texts of the “grassroots” culture, on the contrary, often broken, not structured, incongruous, strange, indecent, etc.
The isolation and self-sufficiency of the local culture is manifested in its opposition (sometimes quite harsh) to other cultures. And here the situation is reversed. The "upper" part of one local culture can be quite close to the "upper" part of another. But at the level of "grassroots" culture, in terms of individual everyday opposition, the gap turns out to be large. This is expressed in the relevant proverbs and sayings, stereotypes of perception of representatives of another culture. Therefore, on the whole, the thesis about a single universal culture as an integral system was, rather, only a metaphor.
This does not mean that such local cultures did not communicate with each other, did not know about each other. But each of the cultures developed in itself a powerful frame, a kind of “immunity” to another culture, which did not let in alien elements and influences. Therefore, one of the central cultural oppositions of the system of local cultures was the opposition "mine– stranger", in which one's own (intracultural) was considered as true, and someone else's - as a negation of mine, and therefore hostile (false). The basis of local cultures was, first of all, the system of ethnic and religious values. The development of such a culture and the increment of values in it passed through a dense sieve of traditions and values, while maintaining a common direction. Recognizing the presence of other cultures, any local culture has always considered itself as the highest expression of human culture as a whole.
The monograph is devoted to the peculiarities of the formation of local culture in the conditions of interethnic interaction. On the example of Alsace, the concept of local culture is studied from the position of civilizationism, specific features of the local culture of the border synthetic type are highlighted. The monograph defines for the first time five phases of the life cycle of the local culture of Alsace.
Zhukova N.V. Bulletin of the Moscow State Linguistic University. Humanitarian sciences. 2010. No. 11 (590). pp. 109-116.
This article deals with the problem of studying local cultures, which is related to the issue of the diversity of cultural experience. One of the most important aspects of this problem is the definition of approaches and methods for the analysis of local cultures, the processes of their formation and the identification of their specific features. The study of the specific in local cultures implies a movement from the general to the particular, from determining the content of a local culture through regional specificity to individual characteristics.
Abramov R. N. In: Globalization and Social Institutions: A Sociological Approach. M.: Nauka, 2010. Ch. 5. S. 134-184.
The chapter is devoted to the issue of the connection between globalization and a special form of culture, which is usually called mass. Mass culture, as the dominant type of culture, arises as a result of the process of massification of society, therefore, the theories of mass society, which became especially widespread in the middle of the 20th century, are included in the orbit of consideration. The final part of the chapter examines the processes of massovization of culture and society in Russia over the past century.
The collection of scientific papers "France and the French language in the era of globalization" is an attempt to answer the question of how globalization has affected the culture and language of modern France. The book is intended for students, graduate students, teachers, researchers in various specialties: linguistics, philology, pedagogy, intercultural communication, history, law, economics, cultural studies, philosophy, etc.
Zhukova N.V. Bulletin of the Moscow State Linguistic University. Humanitarian sciences. 2012. No. 644. P. 156-160.
The article is devoted to the study of the dialogue between French and German cultures in Alsace at the present stage. The influence of French and German cultures on the formation and development of the local culture of Alsace is considered, the current political situation in the region is analyzed, and the culture of everyday life is also considered. The question of the need to classify the identity of the Alsatians and analyze the most striking components of their self-consciousness is touched upon.
Zhukova N.V. In: European Culture: Challenges of Modernity. Issue. 302: Reports of the Institute of Europe. Moscow: Institute of Europe RAS, 2014, pp. 40-45.
The paper examines the current position of Alsace (local culture of the border synthetic type) between two regional cultures - France and Germany.
1. General typology of cultures: world, ethnic (national) and regional cultures.
2. Historical typology of cultures: formational and civilizational approaches.
3. The concept of subculture. Mass, elite, totalitarian, marginal types of cultures. local cultures.
4. The cultural world of everyday life.
LITERATURE
Alekseev V.P. Ethnogenesis. M., 1986.
Arutyunov S.A. Peoples and Cultures: Development and Interaction. M., 1989.
Bystrova A.N., Kiselev V.A. World culture and culture of the world. - Novosibirsk, 1996.
Bourdieu P. Practical meaning. SPb., 2001.
Gachev G. National images of the world. M., 1998.
Gudkov L. Culture of everyday life in the latest sociological research. M., 1993.
Davydov Yu.N., Rodnyanskaya I.B. Sociology of counterculture. Critical analysis. M., 1980.
Dahin A.V. Phenomenology of universality in culture. Nizhny Novgorod, 1995.
West and East: Traditions and Modernity. M., 1993.
Karmin A.S. Fundamentals of cultural studies. Morphology of culture. SPb., 1997.
Markov B.V. Temple and market. Man in the space of culture. SPb., 1999.
Methodology of regional historical research. Russian and foreign experience. SPb., 2000.
Nasonova L.I. Ordinary consciousness as a sociocultural phenomenon. M., 1997.
Semenov V.E. Mass culture in the modern world. SPb., 1991.
Silichev A.D. Culturology. M., 1998.
Romanov V.N. Historical development of culture: problems of typology. M., 1991.
Unique territories in the cultural and natural heritage of the regions. M., 1994.
Cultural values and the modern era. M., 1990.
Shchavelev S.P. Practical knowledge. Philosophical and methodological essays. Voronezh, 1994 (Sections "Ordinary knowledge and the world of everyday life"; "Folk wisdom and specialized work").
Elite and mass in Russian artistic culture. M., 1996.
TOPICS OF SUMMARY AND REPORTS
Culture and ethnogenesis: different theories of ethnicity.
Ethnic (national) in culture.
Cultural context of interethnic conflicts.
Ethnocultural stereotypes.
Stages of the cultural evolution of mankind.
Culturological content of the concept of "ethnocentrism".
Psychological originality of the Slavic ethnos and their reflection in folklore.
The phenomenon of the holiday and its role in culture.
The theory of elites and its significance for cultural studies.
Russian aristocratic culture.
Peasant culture of Russia.
Marginality in society and culture: a sociological analysis.
National culture and traditions of healthcare.
Medical occultism and its role in modern Russian culture.
Typology of culture represents its consideration in accordance with its internal dynamics and historical development and classification according to some grounds and common features. It should be remembered that the unification of cultures into groups and the allocation of certain cultural types is rather arbitrary, since real cultural formations are much more complex in content, but science needs such classifications for its analytical research, and pedagogy - for teaching their conclusions.
The procedure for typology of cultures depends on the chosen criterion, so cultural studies can offer a variety of classification options. First of all, the typology of cultures can be built in different geographical spaces: world, ethnic, national and regional. There is no common opinion among scientists regarding the existence of a single world culture. Already since the 19th century, some philosophers have expressed doubts about the existence of this concept, which was stable in the past, which the modern researcher of culture G. Young called "the illusion of Western consciousness." We can talk about world culture, most likely, in a sense close to the concept of “noosphere” by V.I. Vernadsky. Namely, as a set of those most important features that distinguish the historical development of Homo sapiens culture from the spontaneous evolution of nature according to the laws of Darwinism.
One of the criteria for classifying cultures is their belonging to a particular ethnic group (from the Greek ethnos - people). ethnic culture- this is the habitual way of life, the social and spiritual state of a people. Ethnicity arises on the basis of the identification of an individual with a certain cultural tradition; characterized by a common origin, place of compact residence, historical destinies of this or that people. Ethnologists are still arguing whether the phenomenon of ethnicity really exists, or whether it consists of purely subjective ideas of people about their belonging to a particular people. On the one hand, most of the peoples of the earth do not have an unambiguous anthropological type (Russians, for example, differ, sometimes in contrast, in the color of their hair, eyes, and other physical characteristics). Contrary to the prejudices of racists and nationalists, nationality is not determined by a blood test or any other biological test. What nationality a person usually decides himself, voicing his ethnic identity (in the passport office or under less formal circumstances). However, it would be wrong to reduce ethnicity to inventions of intellectuals or politicians. Any person, regardless of his real origin, the nationality of his parents (not always the same), inevitably learns the traditions of the culture of a certain nationality - depending on the cultural environment in which he grows up.
Interethnic relations at all times implied not only cooperation and good neighborliness, but also hostility, and often direct hostility towards representatives of other cultures. This kind of alienation hinders interethnic interactions and can lead to social conflicts. The “image of the enemy”, which certain politicians, representatives of certain elites of society cultivate for their own selfish purposes, usually accompanies the establishment of dictatorial regimes, aggressive wars, and apartheid regimes. Imaginary and real "enemies of the people" are most often ethnic in color (for the Nazis - Jews, Slavs and other "non-Aryans", for white racists - Negroes, etc.).
Ethnic culture manifests itself most of all in such areas as natural (national) language; as well as in a certain way of life, everyday behavior; its traditions, customs, beliefs, typical psychological traits of its bearers. It is focused on the preservation of ethnic "roots" in clothing, food and many other manifestations of life. That is why this culture is usually archaic and conservative - even living outside their territory, ethnic groups strive to preserve their ethno-cultural features (it is known that many immigrants from Russia who moved to the USA and Israel largely reproduce their usual way of life there, following the prevailing ethno-cultural stereotypes).
The highest form of ethnicity in the modern world is the nation. This is the largest and most complex form of cultural and historical community of people. Therefore, in the New History of Mankind, on the basis of ethnic community, there often arise national cultures. They include a set of values, norms, customs, beliefs of people belonging to the same nation (that is, having a territorial, economic, mental and linguistic community). The national type of culture can integrate a number of ethnic ones, which, however, tend to preserve their ethno-cultural identity. So, in Russia or the USA, supranational communities (Russians, Americans) have also developed, and pockets of cultural originality of many indigenous or migrating peoples have been preserved (in the USA, these are the cultures of the Anglo-Saxons, African Americans, Italians, Latinos, Jews, etc. .; in Russia - Great Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians; peoples of the Caucasus, the Russian North, Siberia and many others). Compared to ethnic culture, national culture is more dynamic, more subject to transformations, and open to cultural contacts.
Another of the most common classifications of cultures in science is regional, according to which the following cultural regions are distinguished: European-North African (cultures of Ancient Egypt, antiquity, Romanesque, Germanic and Slavic cultural worlds), Far Eastern, Indian, Arab-Muslim, tropical-African, Latin American, oceanic.
The generally accepted basis for combining cultures into groups is the concept cultural era. Such a classification can be carried out depending on the material and technique of making tools (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age, Early Iron Age) or it can be determined by a certain way of life (gathering culture, hunting and fishing culture; agricultural culture; urban; scientific and technical, informational, etc.).
In cultural studies, it is also accepted historical typology of cultures - that is, their classification according to historical type with subsequent generalizations, identification of typical groups and trends in their development. This approach makes it possible to identify the most important regularities in the development of the cultural-historical process, to determine the place of each specific culture in the socio-cultural evolution of mankind. Science has developed two fundamental principles for constructing a historical typology of cultures. One of them - formational- is based on the concept of world-historical progress, formulated in the ideology of the Enlightenment and especially Marxist theory. From the point of view of socio-historical formations, the evolution of mankind is seen as a unidirectional development from the simple to the complex. In this case, the history of culture is an integral part of the history of society and is subject to general historical laws. As a result, each stage of the development of society (socio-economic formation) has its own type of culture. K. Marx and his followers single out the cultures of such societies as primitive, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, communist.
However, the real history of mankind has shown the limitations of the formational approach, and today claims the dominant role in the typology of cultures. civilization principle. In accordance with it, individual civilizations differ according to the following criteria: historical time (ancient, medieval civilizations), geographical space (Asian, European civilizations), leading production technology (traditional, industrial, post-industrial societies), political relations (slave-owning, feudal civilizations), specificity of spiritual life (Christianity, Buddhism, Islam). The civilizational approach, which was formed in the cultural philosophy of the 19th century, is distinguished by greater depth and scientific reliability, based on the recognition of the fundamental equality, uniqueness and uniqueness of all original cultures without exception, the irreducibility of their development to a universal scheme. This idea became widespread in the philosophy of culture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
At the same time, some philosophers attempted to synthesize the theories of "local civilizations" and cultural progress, the unity of world culture and the diversity of national cultural types (V.S. Solovyov, K. Jaspers, A. Weber).
Society is heterogeneous in its structure, it is formed by various social groups and strata, within which special cultural formations arise - the so-called subcultures(from lat. sub - under, to underlie). These are specific types of culture in which traditions, values, customs, rules of conduct are fixed, adopted in any local social group and different from those common in normative culture (for example, urban, rural, youth, professional, criminal and other subcultures). They enable the people included in them to assert themselves and unite on the basis of the views, customs, behavioral styles, jargon, clothing shared in this community, and thereby separate themselves from representatives of other social groups and society as a whole. Subcultural associations are characterized by closeness and relative isolation from the dominant culture, at the same time their position in society can change - there are known cases of transformation of subcultures into official culture or their dissolution in other subcultural formations. With the development of civilization, the social structure of society becomes more complex, which ensures the emergence and maintenance of the diversity of subcultures.
An independent typological variant is Mass culture- its emergence and disengagement from the elite form of culture is associated with the development of industrial production and advanced technologies, and its distribution occurs through the means of mass communications. This culture is addressed to a huge audience, the cultural values it produces are designed for mass consumption, their main characteristics are popularity, general accessibility, traditionalism and conservatism. In art, these are the genres of western, detective, melodrama, romance, numerous serials, endlessly varying the same plot schemes, compositional formulas, images, types, while the main requirements are ease of perception, entertainment, entertainment. Mass culture develops stereotypes in thinking, focuses on undemanding taste, national, age, educational differences practically do not matter for familiarization with it, it does not have the potential to creatively develop the spiritual needs of a person. At the same time, as scientific studies show, the mass and commercial success of samples of this type of culture is due to certain social, psychological and aesthetic needs of people, therefore, until recently, the negativism that took place in relation to this cultural type was recognized as one-sided. After all, if in relation to elite culture mass culture is a clear regression, then in relation to many subcultures it is much more meaningful. The ability to listen to the radio, watch TV, read magazines and newspapers, use computers and other achievements of mass culture in the recent past was absent for the majority of the population of Russia and many other countries of the world. In general, mass culture performs important social functions, contributing to the establishment of communication links and the processes of socialization of the individual, its sociocultural adaptation to a rapidly changing life, and develops psychological defense mechanisms.
Elite culture(from French elite - the best, chosen) belongs to a special social stratum with a developed moral and aesthetic consciousness - the so-called elite, which usually carries out the progressive development of society. The status of elitism is possessed by recognized classical examples of art, literature, science, philosophy - that is, all those phenomena of spiritual and material life that are usually united by the concept of "high culture". The achievements and works of elite culture are usually too expensive, they are too complex both in content and in form in order to be assimilated by the general population. The fruits of elite culture are available, as a rule, to those social groups whose representatives receive higher education and other special training (knowledge of foreign languages, music, and other arts). Depending on the cultural progress and economic wealth of the society, access to the elite culture can be expanded at the expense of certain parts of the so-called "middle class".
A variant of the elite culture is esoteric culture, intended for a narrow circle of "chosen ones" who have "special" mystical knowledge that allows them to reveal the secret meaning of cultural phenomena that are inaccessible to rational knowledge and experience superhuman states of consciousness. An example of this is theosophy - attempts to master the supernatural abilities of the human psyche, establishing its mysterious connection with the "energy of the cosmos." Close to esotericism is the so-called occultism( from lat . occultus - hidden, hidden). It includes a variety of mystical teachings, suggesting the real existence of supernatural, supernatural forces and ways of interacting with them by specially trained people gifted with specific abilities (magicians, priests, prophets, fortune-tellers, psychics, etc.). "Initiates" can resort to their services - for the sake of healing, knowing the meaning of life, predicting the future, or achieving other higher goals.
The practice of the occult from ancient times to the present day is common in medicine. It is worth mentioning again various kinds of folk and self-proclaimed healers, sorcerers - representatives of "white" and "black" magic, etc. actors in the medical services market. Non-traditional, paranormal methods of diagnosis and healing are becoming more widespread and enjoy considerable popularity in Russia along with astrology, magic, palmistry and other parascientific phenomena. As the history of culture testifies, such an explosion of interest in everything otherworldly, mysterious always accompanies crisis situations experienced by society in critical, crisis eras. Scientific and technological progress does not at all reduce the popularity of the occult and mysticism, because they serve different aspirations of people. Science and technology, rational knowledge in general, help with really surmountable problems. As a rule, people resort to the supernatural and pretenders to control it in hopeless situations (a disease incurable by modern medicine, an unpredictable twist of personal fate). Although mysticism is not able to influence real life, in most cases it heals a disturbed soul quite effectively (prayer, trance, spells, amulets, etc. accessories of old or newfangled magic). Tolerant and even funny in the field of leisure, entertainment, examples of esoteric culture become dangerous when applied to the field of public health.
The phenomena of mass and elite cultures attract the attention of many researchers. Already in antiquity, the idea of elitism arises. So, in the model of an ideal state developed by Plato, power belongs to the intellectual elite - philosophers-rulers. This idea gets its conceptual design in the works of F. Nietzsche, A. Schopenhauer, H. Ortega y Gasset, A. Bergson, G. Marcuse and other philosophers of the Modern and Contemporary times, dividing people into “mass” and “selected minority” , an elite with the ability to self-improvement and a special susceptibility to intellectual and artistic values. The 20th century demonstrates different assessments of the idea of elitism: Representatives of the theory of "art for art's sake" actively declared a break with mass culture; modernism emphasized its elitism. On the contrary, the emphasis on democracy is characteristic of postmodernism, which blurs the boundaries between the elite and the mass in culture.
At the same time, many scholars speak of a real confrontation between elite and mass cultures within Western civilization. Thus, the Spanish philosopher J. Ortega y Gasset in his famous work “The Revolt of the Masses”, analyzing the phenomenon of mass consciousness, writes that “man-mass” is not belonging to any particular social group, but a way of being human. The "average person" is not able to think independently, acts against his will, allowing himself to be manipulated, while he is confident in his superiority and does not need spiritual development. The mass consciousness recognizes violence and desires strong power, therefore the “man-mass” is the basis and essence of totalitarianism.
As the historical practice of the 20th century shows, regimes of this kind actively used mass culture, introducing their ideological programs into the public consciousness with its help. As a result, there is totalitarian type of culture(from lat. totalis - full, whole). As a rule, tough anti-democratic rule is accompanied by standardization of lifestyle and thinking, a hostile attitude towards any dissent, and the state exercises total control over all manifestations of social and spiritual life. The ideological approach prevails, the main criterion in the sphere of morality, science, philosophy, and art is compliance with the canons of officialdom. The theory and practice of the Soviet Proletcult is usually cited as an example as an attempt to create a fundamentally new type of culture (proletarian) based on a class approach and total denial of the previous cultural heritage (noble-bourgeois).
The opposition to the dominant culture is marginal culture(from lat. marginalis - located on the edge, on the border). It consists of the traditions and way of life of the so-called. "frontier" social groups, rejected by this or that society. As a result of migration, or intra-social mobility, social cataclysms of a revolutionary type, they become deprived of their rights, economically disadvantaged and forced to assimilate social roles and values of the dominant culture that are unacceptable to them. This usually gives rise to aggression, insecurity, and anger among the marginalized. A marginal way of life is forced to lead recent migrants to a foreign country, especially those who do not speak its language, do not have prestigious professions. Representatives of sexual minorities can serve as examples of a marginal subculture. Marginals either hide their beliefs and habits from the majority, or openly challenge the prevailing values and seek to legalize their own.
Counterculture(from lat contra - against) is a set of sociocultural attitudes that openly oppose the dominant culture and deny its values. Scientific interest in this phenomenon was activated due to the “new left” movement in Europe in the 1960s and 1970s. of the 20th century and the works of the American sociologist T. Rozzak, who tried to generalize the non-traditional cultural movements (hippies, punks, neo-Buddhists, etc.) that were then widespread in Western society, designating them with the term “counterculture”. At its core, the counterculture is oppositional, it is a criticism of the dominant culture, an active rejection of the values and way of life implanted by it. The content of the counterculture is the protest and denial of the stereotypes of mass and totalitarian cultures. The counterculture itself is not always flawless in moral or aesthetic terms, but after all, it carries new ideas in itself, voluntarily or involuntarily updating and enriching the official culture that interacts with it.
Although this concept appeared only a few decades ago, the phenomenon of the counterculture itself has been known for a long time. One can recall the ancient cynic philosophers who preached an unconventional way of life; Diogenes, a representative of this philosophical school, lives for show in a “barrel”, i.e. a huge vessel. Or hermits of every kind, fleeing from the world with its temptations into forests or deserts. In addition, the birth of a new culture usually represents its manifestation in the form of a counterculture (for example, Christianity was initially perceived as a heresy in Judaism). In the USSR, the antagonist of official culture was the so-called underground- the bohemian way of life of a part of the artistic and scientific intelligentsia (some of its representatives, working as watchmen or stokers, were engaged in art, science, and informal communication at their leisure).
local cultures. The general theoretical structuring of human culture is complemented by the characteristics of its variants in space and time of world geography and history. local culture represents an original manifestation and combination of many, in principle, universal (or, at least, fairly widespread throughout the world) traditions of household, economic, leisure, and professional and creative activities of its representatives.
The scale of this kind of culturological localism can be different. It is associated with the geographic zones of the Earth (permafrost, middle latitudes or tropics), generally different natural (landscape, climatic) conditions (oceanic islands, seaside, forests, tundra, steppes, deserts, temperate climate of the plain, etc.), however does not completely coincide with them (in the same ecological "niche" sometimes fit, replace each other different variants of culture). On the other hand, culture often crosses political (between states), linguistic (ethnic, national), and confessional (religious-church) boundaries. Although all these social factors affect its isolation no less, if not more, than natural conditions. As a result, a lot of types and varieties of loci of culture are distinguished - the West and the East; paganism and various variants of monotheism (Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam); traditional (standard-reproductive), innovative (industrial, information), transitional ("developing") societies; etc.
Let us emphasize the conditionality of the distinction, and even more so the relativity of the opposition of local cultures.
Firstly, as a rule, they are interconnected in a certain system - they are allies, exchange achievements, or they are at enmity, harm one another; often both at the same time (as, for example, the nomadic and agricultural peoples of antiquity and the Middle Ages; the socio-economically developed countries of the West and the “developing” countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America today). Such mega-formations are called world-system cultures; they provide civilizational unity in the vast, intercontinental spaces of the Earth.
Secondly, the differences between cultures are not eternal - they can be erased, up to complete leveling (as today the mass culture of the information society replicates high technologies, standards of everyday life, fashionable styles of art almost all over the world); or they can grow to complete polarization (this is how countries like Afghanistan or Iran, which for a time fell into the orbit of Islamic fundamentalism, are tightly fenced off from the Western world and its cultural values).
Finally, local culture itself is by no means monolithic in its internal structure. It consists of many even more local subcultures. It is convenient to call them regional. Region as the concept of cultural studies means a special area, a part of a country (or several countries at once), which differs from neighboring regions by a number of characteristics (geographical, economic, national-ethnic, historical traditions). For example, in Russia, almost every subject of the Federation (region, territory) is a special region with its own cultural characteristics, population composition, and socio-economic potential.
Of course, the scale of the region does not completely coincide with the administrative boundaries between regions and even states, but approaches these boundaries more or less completely. For example, the Kursk Seimye as a region that developed at the turn of the 1st and 2nd millennium AD. e. covered the resettlement of the Slavs in the rivers of the Seim and Upper Pasla rivers, their tributaries. In the future, this territory turned into the principality of Ancient Rus'; then it acted as a frontier between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Muscovite Russia and the Tatar-Mongolian Horde; after which it was finally annexed to the Moscow state; became a province of the Russian Empire, a region of the USSR, and finally, the Russian Federation. As a result of these cultural and historical transformations, such traditional parts of it as Putivl, Belgorod and a number of smaller ones departed from the Kursk land. However, the sub-ethnic community - the Kursk people, known since the time of the chronicle and the Tale of Igor's Campaign, has been preserved and represented on the ethno-cultural map of modern Russia, and the Kursk Territory exists and develops within the boundaries of the corresponding region.
Thus, world culture is not just a mosaic; not only is it made up like a nesting doll from a multitude of local cultures; rather, it is built like a kaleidoscope of these latter. Local cultures develop, their connections with each other change. Growing in the modern world protest movement against globalization in politics, economics and culture. The leaders of the most developed countries (USA, Western Europe, their closest allies in the world) in one way or another impose standards of behavior and models of culture on other peoples. However, the pace of cultural development, traditions of production and consumption in different countries vary, often significantly. Raising the standard of living, its material support to the level of technologically advanced countries should not, in principle, erase the national, regional identity of different cultures. Humanity is made up of different peoples, and this multicultural unity is the guarantee of our common survival on planet Earth.
The cultural world of everyday life. The concept of everyday life primarily associated with such areas of human life as life, and partly work And leisure. Among the daily (ordinary) activities and relationships of people are primary and eternal for society. Those without which no others are possible - specialized, extreme, large-scale creative types of life. Namely, on a daily basis, at least the satisfaction of the basic needs of the individual in the home-shelter, food-drink, rest-sleep, body hygiene, rest-entertainment, dressing-decorating oneself and arranging the immediate environment, everything else is personal-family self-service. In other words, everyday life begins and dominates precisely “at home”, i.e. (for a modern citizen) in the bedroom, bathroom, kitchen, dining room, living room with TV and other audio equipment; continues in public carriages and cabins of personal transport, household rooms of enterprises, in shops and markets, etc. their microzones. In addition, elements of everyday life are somehow present in the macro-zones of public communication and interaction of people - such as "courtyards" - gateways, boulevards, bars, stadiums, fairs, circuses, theaters, churches, hospitals, cemeteries, etc. platforms, "raised" or "lowered" in comparison with the "house".
Despite the all-penetrating nature of everyday life, it is not able to absorb the entire life of anyone without a trace. Both here and there, everyday life collides with its life opposites and is partly replaced by them for a while. It refers to such moments of human life as holiday, ritual And catastrophe(disaster, sickness, death). They periodically intersperse the ordinary course of events in life and culture, change, ennoble, or (and often - and) disfigure the soul and body of the layman; in any case, they enrich him with new impressions and knowledge. In addition, a significant part of it goes beyond everyday life. human labor activity, especially if it is of a professional, highly specialized, responsible nature. Finally, it differs from everyday life a game as a valuable realization of human freedom.
All these cultural oppositions to everyday life exist in close unity with it; harmonizing them as far as possible is one of the eternal and main tasks for the individual and society.
Festive and ritual moments of life, its official and even gaming aspects are more strictly regulated by public opinion and personal duty, and therefore look more cultured outwardly (formal clothes, a well-thought-out scenario of behavior, help and control of experts). In the office and at a symposium, at a wedding and at a funeral, at a church service and at a party congress, even at a party and on a date, in the gym and at the stadium, etc. In one way or another, in formalized situations, people usually appear from their most advantageous side, wholly obey the traditions of their culture and the fashions that are newly emerging in society. As for everyday life, here the situation and behavior within society differ more strongly and depend more on the caliber and life stage, the very nature of the individual, her family heritage, and the environment. As a general rule, it can be noted that the contrast between the appearance and behavior of a well-bred person in everyday life and "in the world" should not be too striking.
All in all, existential "homeland of everyday life", its semantic “core” is characterized by stability, predictability (as opposed to risk, adventure), accumulation (and not loss, waste), habit of the expected, familiar (instead of any shocks, innovations), some averageness, normativity (in contrast and with a record , maximalism, and with ugliness, perversion of any kind), in principle, generally accessible (despite genius, or, conversely, marginality). Being, from the side view, small, even petty at each given moment, separately, daily worries and troubles fill a large part of the biography of each person and therefore, ultimately, deserve our understanding and recognition.
Certainly, boundaries of everyday life changeable and conditional both in space and in the history of culture. The dimensions and content of everyday life vary from country to country, from epoch to epoch, and from one social stratum to another. It is different - it is different for representatives of the social elite, for the middle class and for homeless vagrants. What in the distant past was a habitual occupation of most members of entire societies (such as hunting, fishing, gathering mushrooms and berries, gardening, traveling) in modern society has become the entertainment of special groups of lovers, and even the privileges of the aristocracy (horse riding, for example). In any, the most exotic situation, with very complex, creative activity, there is an element of routine, habit. And, on the contrary, it is possible to poeticize, to raise one or another of its moments above the prose of everyday life. The best way to do this is to step beyond the boundaries of culture, into the wilds of nature or into social anarchy. "It's good to return to civilization!" - proclaims one of the heroes of G.K. Chesterton. - “They say that there is no poetry in it. Do not believe it - the delusion of civilized people. Wait until you really get lost in nature, among demonic forests and cruel flowers. Then you will understand that there is no star like the star of the hearth; there is no river like the river of wine…”
You have to keep in mind the constant daily routine, or rasp-sedation certain occupations, aspects of life. Corresponding procedures serve as one of the striking differences between national variants of culture (it is worth comparing the clothes, housing, cuisine and leisure activities of, say, a Japanese or an Englishman, a Russian, anyone else among the peoples of the world). It is possible to judge the expediency of certain forms of everyday life only from within the corresponding variant of a culture that has been formed and exists in certain natural and social conditions. Understanding and respecting other people's customs, even imitation of other of them, does not cancel a person's own national and cultural identity in general. A lot of cultural achievements and traditions are being "remelted" by the culture of different peoples, enriching their material and spiritual activities.
For example, the culture of the Russian people is distinguished by exceptional complexity in its genesis. In addition to the original Slavic substrate, it includes many foreign borrowings that have long been perceived by Russian people as their own, native. Meanwhile, these words, things, recipes, tools, technologies were once borrowed by our ancestors from the Finno-Ugric, Baltic, Turkic, Siberian, Caucasian, Central Asian, Western European neighbors.
Everyday life occupies the place of its foundation in the complex "building" of culture, without which nothing can be built, but to which alone no structure can be reduced.
It is everyday life that gives rise to supports individual and interpersonal human being, including so that he can engage in specialized forms of culture (art, science, profession in general). Therefore, such an attitude towards the body and soul will be considered cultural, which ensures their coordinated, effective existence and action. The conditions of any civilization, and modern in particular, distort the natural physiology and even anatomy of a person, in one way or another neuroticize his psyche. No fruitful activity is possible without certain costs of health, the risk of its replacement by a disease. In this connection, everyday life usually plays the role of a temporary refuge for the body and soul, their recreation from the stresses and challenges of external life, the pressure of the “big” culture. Rapprochement, and even erasure of the boundary between everyday life and the rest of life characterizes the extreme - aristocratic, elite, or the most marginalized strata of society.
Again, it is within everyday universal meanings of culture are formed(concepts of common sense, basic skills of work and rest, rules of entertaining games, aesthetic ideals of folklore, conclusions of folk wisdom), which one way or another are part of more complex levels of it, the culture of functioning. Ordinary consciousness is self-sufficient and, in principle, does not need artificial cultivation, much less forced "enlightenment" from science and other branches of spirituality; they will be required by the individual outside of everyday life, in special areas of her self-expression and when faced with the most difficult problems. Therefore, the archaic methods of "folk medicine", peasant agriculture, urban "mass culture", folklore and other amateur arts, folk (Christian-pagan) "dual faith" continue to coexist in parallel with the canons and methods of official medicine and other achievements of science and technology, professional art and "great" literature, verified by theologians with religiosity.
However, individual results of scientific knowledge and other specialties one way or another penetrate into the composition of ordinary consciousness and, over time, expand its horizons. The development of secondary and higher education, the informational pressure of the mass media, the efforts of science and technology popularizers are having an effect. So, many modern patients imagine the possibilities of the human body and the ways of healing its ailments much better than their ancestors. Of course, this knowledge remains pre-scientific, non-systemic, but its formation also facilitates the tasks of doctors and other physicians in their work with patients, their relatives and friends. A clear (within the limits of medical secrecy) explanation by him of the clinical picture of the disease, the rules of a proper lifestyle with him usually helps to mobilize the body's defenses, strengthens the spirit of a sick person.
One should not only exaggerate the merits and possibilities of everyday knowledge - they are reliable only in their narrow range of meanings today, but they are limited, shallow in comparison with special areas of knowledge and practice. For example, the same traditional medicine does not contain a panacea at all; An effective fight against the majority of serious diseases today is possible only on the path of improving scientific, professionally technologized medicine.
A long, especially forced, violent separation from the usual everyday life is experienced by most of us quite painfully. Therefore, by the way, the situation in polyclinics, hospitals and other medical institutions should, if possible, compensate their visitor, the patient for a difficult, often painful separation from home and family, focus on his natural needs for comfort, physical and mental comfort. As you know, post-diagnostic treatment, postoperative nursing of a patient is no less responsible and expensive stage of healing than direct work with his body by doctors and pharmacists. At the post-treatment stage, medicine increases attention to the very personality of the patient, her subjective well-being and everyday moods.
The everyday horizon of life activity serves as the primary expression of the originality of any ethnic, national, estate-class variant of culture. These are relevant traditions family and marriage relations, housebuilding and household - kitchen (choice, cooking and eating), daily routine, hospitality, tailoring and general body design (jewelry, makeup, etc.), leisure activities, and many others.
Technical and social progress periodically changes, even breaks the foundations of the former everyday life. For example, today few Russians live in huts, wear bast shoes and eat exclusively cabbage soup and porridge. The conditions and accessories of everyday life acquire an average, international character. Household appliances, clothing, food, home design in developed countries are increasingly similar to each other, focusing on the best and most fashionable. Most of the consumer goods (drugs, stylish clothes, fast food, household appliances, etc. personal and family life accessories) are produced by transnational corporations. Trends in the globalization of everyday culture partly make life easier, freeing up time and space for some creativity, self-expression (no need to heat stoves with wood or weave the same bast shoes, you can play chess or read), just relax. But they also partially impoverish its spiritual content (urban children - virtuosos of computer games - already confuse not only Pushkin with Lermontov, but also birches with aspens, and goats with sheep). As in the general flow of cultural development, here losses coexist with gains, which is better treated with understanding, as they say, philosophically. Every house cannot be turned into a museum of antiquities; visiting museums, in some other way joining the still living antiquity from time to time is not useless.
This dialectic of tradition and innovation in the composition of everyday life is fully represented in the cooperation of official, modern medicine and folk, traditional medicine.
As before, someone hides in everyday life from the real and imaginary difficulties of the rest of life; someone, pretending to despise him, shifts the heavy burden of household chores onto the shoulders of relatives and friends, or degrades into a slob; someone, having the means, buys almost all household services, allegedly not needing the joys of everyday communication; and someone knows how to build their everyday life harmoniously enough for themselves and for others, i.e. for the sake of fruitful existence in the culture of his time.
Enculturation is the process of mastering the norms of social life and culture by an individual.
Art - Most case, requiring such skills, skills
Canon - 1. Immutable rule, regulation some directions, teachings, etc. // What firmly established, accepted sample.// What is the traditional generally accepted norm, custom, rule.
2. Established and legitimized by the church rule, dogma, rite and so on.
3. church chant V honor saint, holiday, etc.
4. Accurate repetition one melody different, successively entering Friend after another in voices (a form of polyphonic music).
Kitsch(from Polish. Sus - handicraft). A term that was in circulation in the 1960s and 1970s and has now gone out of fashion, as it has been replaced by a more weighty concept - postmodernism.
In fact, kitsch there is an origin and one of the varieties postmodernism. Kitsch- This mass art for the elect. A work belonging to Quichu, should be done at a high artistic level, it should have a fascinating plot. But this is not a real work of art in the highest sense, but a skillful fake for it. IN quiche there may be deep psychological collisions, but there are no genuine artistic discoveries
Classicism - Direction in literature and art of the 17th century - early 19th century, a characteristic feature of which was an appeal to patterns and forms of ancient art as most perfect.
Communication - (lat. communicatio - from communico - I make it common, I connect, I communicate), 1) path messages, connection one places with another. 2) Communication, the transfer of information from person to person is a specific form of interaction between people in the processes of their cognitive and labor activity, carried out main way with the help of language (less often with the help of other sign systems). Communication is called Also signal ways communication with animals.
Counterculture - used in literature general designation heterogeneous in ideological and political orientation of the values of certain groups of young people ("" new left "", hippies, beatniks, yippies, etc.), opposed to official values. This protest takes various forms: passive to extremist; general democratic goals often combined with sanarchism, "leftist" radicalism; "non-acquisitive" image life is permeated with cultural nihilism, technophobia, religious quests.
Conformism - adaptability, crazy following general opinions, fashion trends
Nonconformism (from non - not, no and conformis - similar, consistent) - non-acceptance of the prevailing order, norms, values, traditions or laws (regardless of their logical or legitimate basis).
Cosmopolitan - adherent cosmopolitanism.
Cosmopolitanism - Reactionary bourgeois ideology, which, under the guise of the slogans of "world state" and "world citizenship", rejects right nations on their own existence and state independence, preaches refusal from national traditions and national culture, from patriotism
Creativity - (from lat. creatio - creation- creation), creative, constructive, innovative activity.
Cult - (from lat. cultus - veneration) -1) one of the basic elements of religion; actions (body movements, reading or singing certain texts, etc.), aimed at giving visible expression religious worship or attract to their performers the divine ""forces""(so-called sacraments). 2) Excessive exaltation of something or someone (the cult of personality).
Cultural heritage is part of the material and spiritual culture, created by past generations that passed the test time and passed on to generations as something valuable and revered
Messianism (ancient Hebrew mashiah - anointed one, Arabic mash - anointing, mashih - anointed one) - religious the doctrine of the coming coming into the world of God's messenger - messiah designed to establish justice peace, peace on earth. The reasons for the emergence of messianism are associated with the unresolved social problems, the loss of hope for a better future, etc. It is no coincidence that messianism found fertile ground among peoples, ethno-confessional groups that were subjected to persecution and persecution. For example, sermon messianism in Judaism intensified precisely when the Jewish state was destroyed, when Jews were held captive in Egypt And Babylon. Desperate people hoped for the help of divine forces. Messianism was also attractive to Christians during the period of persecution in Roman Empire. According to the Christian eschatology, coming The Second Coming of the Messiah (Jesus Christ). The ideas of Messianism were developed in islam especially among Muslims Shiites. The Shia minority experienced persecution in many countries. Messianic expectations of the emergence Mahdi in Shiite teachings, they were associated with popular aspirations to establish a kingdom of justice on earth. Thus, the more people lost hope of getting rid of evil, the more religious quests spread among them, the painful expectation of the coming of the messiah.
Kulturtragerstvo - Activity cultural trailer.
Kulturtreger - One who carries out their unseemly goals under the guise of spreading culture
Cultural genesis is the process of emergence and formation of culture of any people and nationality in general and the emergence of culture as such in primitive society. At the moment, there is no unified theory of the emergence of culture
Latent - Hidden, outwardly unmanifested
Local culture is a culture limited in time and space, having internal unity, its own specific features and characteristics.
Magic - Aggregate ritual actions and words, supposedly possessing miraculous properties and capable of influence to the supernatural strength
Mythology - 1. Scientific discipline, studying the myths of ancient peoples.
2. Aggregate some myths. people.
Mass culture - concept, covering the diverse and heterogeneous cultural phenomena of the 20th century, which received spreading V connections with the scientific and technological revolution and the constant renewal of mass media. Production, distribution And consumption products of mass culture is industrial-commercial character. The semantic range of mass culture very wide- from primitive kitsch (early comics, melodrama, pop hit,""soap opera"") to complex, content-rich forms (some kinds rock music,""intellectual"" detective, pop Art). The aesthetics of mass culture is characterized by a constant balancing between trivial and original, aggressive and sentimental, vulgar and sophisticated. Actualizing and objectifying expectations mass audience, mass culture meets her needs for leisure, entertainment, play, communication, emotional compensation or relaxation, etc.
Polycentrism - (from poly ... and ... center) - theory origin of modern man kind(Homo sapiens) and its races in several regions of the globe from different forms of ancient people. Most domestic anthropologists are not accepted.
Primate - dominance, primacy, prevailing meaning
Enlightenment - spreading knowledge, education. 2) The system of general educational institutions in the country (see. Also public education)
Regress - decline in the development of something backward movement
Reduction - Weakening, less distinct pronunciation vowel sound in an unstressed position (in linguistics).
The fall of the stock market course securities or stock prices.
Reduction of a complex manufacturing process to more simple.
Process, back oxidation; recovery(in chemistry).
Reducing the size of an organ simplification its structure or complete disappearance V connections with the loss of its functions in the process evolution organism (in biology).
Fluid pressure drop gas, steam in the system of engines, installations using a gearbox.
The seizure by royal power from the feudal nobility of those who passed into it hands state lands (in some European states of the 15th-16th centuries).
Reconstruction - 1. Indigenous refurbishment, refurbishment something // Change organization principles.
2. Recreation, restoration something according to surviving remains or descriptions.
Restoration - 1. Recovery in the original form of dilapidated or destroyed monuments of art.
2. trans. Recovery overthrown political order.
SACRALIZATION
(from lat. sacrum - sacred) - English sacredization; German sacralisierung. Endowing objects, things, phenomena, people with "sacred" content; subordination watered, and societies, institutions, social. and scientific thought, culture and art, domestic relations, religious influence
Samizdat (read [samizdat]) - a way of unofficial and therefore uncensored distribution literary works, as well as religious and journalistic texts in USSR when copies were made by the author or readers without the knowledge and permission of the authorities, as a rule, by typewritten, photographic or handwritten methods, by the end of the USSR also with the help of a computer. Samizdat also distributed tape recordings A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava,Y. Kim, emigrant singers, etc.; a similar phenomenon often had a separate name magnitizdat
Secularization - 1. Appeal church and monastic property in own secular.
2. Withdrawal something from ecclesiastical, spiritual knowledge and broadcast secular, civil jurisdiction.
3. trans. Liberation from church influence (in social and mental activity, in artistic creativity)
Selectivity - (selectivity) of a radio receiver - its ability isolate a useful radio signal against the background of extraneous electromagnetic oscillations (interference). Parameter, characterizing this abilityquantitatively. The most common frequency selectivity.
Symbol - 1. That which serves as a symbol for some sl. concepts, ideas.
2. Artistic image, conditionally transmitting some thought, idea, experience.
3. Conditional designation some size, some concepts, accepted by either different science.
Syncretism - fusion, indivisibility, characterizing the original, undeveloped state something
Slang - Aggregate words and expressions used by representatives of certain groups, professions, etc. and constituents layer colloquial vocabulary that does not correspond to the norms of the literary language (usually with regard to to English-speaking countries).
Sobornost - (catholicity) (Greek Katholikos - universal) - one of the main features of the Christian Church, fixative its self-understanding as universal, universal (""single, saint, catholic and apostolic church""-Nicene-Constantinopolitan symbol faith, 4th c.). Considering catholicity as a specific property Orthodox tradition (sobornost as an aggregate intelligence"of the church people" in difference from the religious individualism of Protestantism and the authoritarianism of the pope in the Roman Catholic Church), A.S. Khomyakov interpreted it as general principle dispensation of being, characterizing multitude gathered by force love in "" free and organic unity""(in social philosophy the greatest approximation this principle was seen in the peasant community). concept catholicity was perceived by Russian religious philosophy con. 19th-20th centuries
Socialization - (from lat. socialis - public) - process assimilation by the human individual of a certain system of knowledge, norms and values that allow him function as a full member of society; includes as a purposeful impact on personality(education), so natural, spontaneous processes affecting her formation. Studied in philosophy, psychology, social psychology, sociology, history and ethnography, pedagogy, theology.
Stagnation - (from lat. stagno - I make immobile) in the economy - stagnation in production, trade, etc.
Standard - 1. type specimen, to whom smth. must satisfy size, shape, quality. // Single form organization, carrying out
2. trans. That which does not include nothing original, original; template, stencil.
Stereotype - 1. Monolithic printed form in the form of a relief copy from a printing set, used for printing large-circulation or repeated editions.
2. unfold stereotypical edition.
3. trans. unchanging common pattern, which is followed without thought; template, stencil.
Stylization - 1. Giving work of art characteristic crap some style. // Recreation some coloration. era in the images and stylistic features of a literary work.
2. Work, shaped like imitation to some style.
Sublimation - 1. Transition substances when heated from a solid state to a gaseous state, bypassing the liquid phase; sublimation.
2. Transition water vapor into ice snow in the atmosphere.
Switching lower (mainly sexual) urges to higher, intellectual and socially useful purposes (in medicine).
Taboo - 1. outdated. religious ban, imposed on a action, word, object, violation which - according to superstitious ideas - was punished by supernatural forces.
2. Any strict ban on smth.
Typing - 1. Embodiment by means of art of the general, typical in specific artistic images, forms.
2. Mixing diversity samples something (machines, buildings, technological processes, etc.) to a small number of types; unification.
3. Assignment to a certain classification type.
Totem - 1. Animal, plant, object or phenomenon nature, which among tribal groups served as an object of religious veneration.
2. Coat of arms tribe with so image.
Universals - (from lat. universalis - general) - general concepts. Ontological status of the universal - one of the central problems of medieval philosophy (dispute about the universals of the 10th-14th centuries): whether there are universals ""before things"", what are the eternal ideal prototypes (Platonism, extreme realism), "" in things "" (Aristotelianism, moderate realism), ""after things"" in human thinking (nominalism, conceptualism).
Unification - (from lat. unus - one and ... fiction) - cast something to a single system, form, uniformity. In technology, unification is understood as bringing various types of products and means of their production to the smallest number of sizes, brands, properties, etc. One from standardization methods.
Utilitarianism - Direction in ethics according to to whom benefit or benefit recognized as a criterion of morality.
Activities based on rough material calculation, striving from extract everything benefit; narrow practicality.
Phenomenon - Phenomenon, in which it is found essence something (in philosophy).
1. Rare, unusual, exceptional phenomenon.
2. trans. Outstanding, exceptional in some respect Human.
Fetish - 1. Inanimate object, endowed - according to the ideas of believers - supernatural force and is an object of religious worship.
2. trans. What blindly worship
Folklore - 1. Oral folk creation.
2. Works created by the people and existing in it.
3. Same as: folklore.
Value - 1. Price something, expressed in money; price.// high price something // unfold Ratio at the rate; dignity(about money, securities).
2. Something that has a high cost; valuable item.
3. trans. Importance, value.
Civilization - 1. Level social development, material and spiritual culture.
2. Modern world culture, progress, enlightenment.
3. Third - next for savagery and barbarity - stage social development.
Evolution - 1. Process gradual change and development.
2. see also evolution.
Evolutionism - Doctrine about the laws of historical development of organic peace and ways of controlling the development of organisms.
Egalitarian Leveling - 1. Corresponding in meaning. with noun: equalization (1*), leveling, related with them.
2. employee to equalize (1*) smth.
3. Based on leveling.
Eclectic - - compound heterogeneous, internally unrelated and Maybe, incompatible views, ideas, concepts, styles, etc. For E. characteristically ignoring logical connections and substantiation of provisions, non-contradiction of the law, usage polysemantic and inaccurate concepts and statements, errors in definitions and classifications, etc. Using facts and formulations taken out of context, uncritically uniting opposing views, E. strives together so create an appearance logical sequence and severity. E. appeared as a methodological principle first in late Greek philosophy expression its decline and intellectual impotence. E. wide used in medieval scholasticism, When cited dozens And hundreds heterogeneous, internally unrelated arguments for and against some provision. E. Sometimes used as reception in advertising and propaganda, in mass media communication when fragmentation It has more value than integrity, internal connectedness And sequence.Void and theoretical infertility E. usually masquerading as references to necessity cover everything manifold existing phenomena with a single integrating view, without losing sight of real contradictions. Insolvent as a general methodological method of describing reality, E. Sometimes acts as an inevitable moment in the development knowledge. Most often it has place V period theory formation, When a new problem is being mastered and is still unattainable synthesis disparate facts, ideas and hypotheses into a single system. eclectic was, e.g. existence side by side with another corpuscular and wave theories of light, later unified in the framework of quantum mechanics. Elements E. present Also V initial period learning a new scientific discipline, when knowledge remain fragmented and incoherent, and there is still no skill highlight in the mass of information most significant and defining.
Elite - 1. Chosen, the best seeds, plants or animals, obtained as a result of selection and intended for further reproduction or breeding.
2. trans. The best representatives of any parts of society. // Representatives of privileged social groups.
Emancipation - 1. The equation rights (usually providing women equal rights with men in the field of public and labor activities).
2. outdated. Liberation from some dependencies.
Aesthetics - 1. Philosophical doctrine about the essence and forms of beauty in art, artistic creativity, nature and life.
2. System views on art or on some his appearance, which smb. adheres to.
3. Beauty, artistry in smth.
Ethics - 1. Philosophical doctrine about morality, its principles, development and roles in society.
2. Aggregate code of conduct, morality some social group, organization, etc.
The general theoretical structuring of human culture is complemented by the characteristics of its variants in space and time of world geography and history. Local culture is an original manifestation and combination of many, in principle, universal (or, at least, fairly widespread throughout the world) traditions of household, economic, leisure, and professional and creative activities of its representatives.
The scale of this kind of culturological localism can be different. It is associated with the geographic zones of the Earth (permafrost, middle latitudes or tropics), generally different natural (landscape, climatic) conditions (oceanic islands, seaside, forests, tundra, steppes, deserts, temperate plains, etc.), however does not completely coincide with them (in the same ecological "niche" sometimes fit, replace each other different variants of culture). On the other hand, culture often crosses political (between states), linguistic (ethnic, national), and confessional (religious-church) boundaries. Although all these social factors influence its isolation no less, if not more than natural conditions. As a result, a lot of types and varieties of loci of culture are distinguished - the West and the East; paganism and various variants of monotheism (Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam); traditional (standard-reproductive), innovative (industrial, information), transitional ("developing") societies; etc.
Let us emphasize the conditionality of the distinction, and even more so the relativity of the opposition of local cultures.
Firstly, as a rule, they are interconnected in a certain system - they are allies, exchange achievements, or they are at enmity, harm one another; often both at the same time (as, for example, the nomadic and agricultural peoples of antiquity and the Middle Ages; the socio-economically developed countries of the West and the “developing” countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America today). Such mega-formations are called world-system cultures; they provide civilizational unity in the vast, intercontinental spaces of the Earth. Secondly, the differences between cultures are not eternal - they can be erased, up to complete leveling (as today the mass culture of the information society replicates high technologies, standards of everyday life, fashionable styles of art for almost the whole world); or they can grow to complete polarization (this is how countries like Afghanistan or Iran, which for a time fell into the orbit of Islamic fundamentalism, are tightly fenced off from the Western world and its cultural values). Finally, local culture itself is by no means monolithic in its internal structure. It consists of many even more local subcultures. It is convenient to call them regional. The region as a concept of cultural studies means a special area, a part of a country (or several countries at once), which differs from neighboring regions by a number of characteristics (geographical, economic, national-ethnic, historical traditions). For example, in Russia, almost every subject of the Federation (region, territory) is a special region with its own cultural characteristics, population composition, and socio-economic potential. Of course, the scale of the region does not completely coincide with the administrative boundaries between regions and even states, but approaches these boundaries more or less completely. For example, the Kursk Seimye as a region that developed at the turn of the 1st and 2nd millennium AD. e. covered the resettlement of the Slavs in the rivers of the Seim and Upper Pasla rivers, their tributaries. In the future, this territory turned into the principality of Ancient Rus'; then it acted as a frontier between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Muscovite Russia and the Tatar-Mongolian Horde; after which it was finally annexed to the Moscow state; became a province of the Russian Empire, a region of the USSR, and finally, the Russian Federation. As a result of these cultural and historical transformations, such traditional parts of it as Putivl, Belgorod and a number of smaller ones departed from the Kursk land. However, the sub-ethnic community - the Kursk people, known since the time of the chronicle and the Tale of Igor's Campaign, has been preserved and represented on the ethno-cultural map of modern Russia, and the Kursk Territory exists and develops within the boundaries of the corresponding region.