American School of Political Science

In the United States, political science has a particularly high authority among the humanities, a large number of researchers work in this area, and in many universities political science is taught as a compulsory academic discipline.

The basis of modern political science is American political science, the main areas of which are:

1. systematic study of managerial "suitability" in the context of the functioning of the entire political system

2. analysis of the effectiveness of political decisions, methods of selection and reasons for the change of political elites, clarification of the levels of support for the political system by civil opinion

3. studying the effectiveness of democracy and its institutions

4. Study of the problems of socio-political development of underdeveloped countries within the concept of "political modernization"

The study of the traditions and problems of political power, the study of its constitutional foundations and principles is central to the modern political science school in the United States today. Much attention is paid to the consideration of the activities of the administrative apparatus and political parties, the development of a new theory of political management, political modernization.

English School of Political Science

The American School of Political Science has had a significant impact on political science in England. In its modern form, English political science is a new branch of humanitarian knowledge, in which the economic, sociological, socio-psychological orientation of political research is increasingly being strengthened. At the same time, special attention is paid to the analysis of the English political system, the institution of elections, the mechanism of political pressure on the government and parliament by various formal and informal groups, the psychology of the political behavior of voters, etc. The central problems of modern English political science are: the theory of conflict; consent theory; theory of pluralistic democracy.

German School of Political Science

In modern political science in Germany, three areas can be distinguished:

1. Normativist political science, based on a philosophical analysis of the moral norms of political activity;

2. Positivist-behavioristic empirical sociology;

3. "Practice-critical science" about socio-political power.

The German School of Political Science holds a special place in the world today. It is characterized by a theoretical and philosophical nature, combined with political and social research. The political and legal thought of the German political science school develops in 3 main directions:

1. The direction of philosophical politics; the use of categories of philosophy, methods of psychoanalysis.

Political school of France

As for France, political science is comparatively young here. As an independent branch of knowledge, it took shape only after the Second World War. For political science in France, the following are more characteristic:

1. theoretical, state studies aspects;

2. study of political processes within the framework of constitutional law.

The state of modern political thought in the West largely determines the development of political science in France. The most common areas in political science are: the study of voter behavior and the study of political parties.

Public opinion is widely studied and the positions of political science in the study of constitutional law and state institutions are very strong.

As well as strong political science schools have developed in Italy and Canada. The study of political science intensified in Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Poland, Australia.

And yet, at this time, there are four main foreign political science schools. These include Anglo-American, French, German and Polish.

1. ANGLO-AMERICAN - development of problems of political modernization, stability of political conflicts, foreign policy.

2. FRENCH - development of problems of the typology of political regimes, the legitimacy of the party-political infrastructure.

3. GERMAN - comparative analysis of political systems, the problem of the functioning of civil society and the rule of law.

4. POLISH - a conceptual study of the political life of society, the main directions of political democratization.

The current stage of development of the domestic methodology is characterized by an increased interest in the problem of using projects in teaching foreign languages. The main task of teachers is to help projects take their proper place in the school practice of teaching foreign languages. The comprehension and application of this method in a new educational, socio-cultural situation, in the light of the requirements for education at the present stage of social development, allows us to talk about the school project as a new pedagogical technology that allows you to effectively solve the problems of a student-centered approach in teaching the younger generation.

The project is valuable because in the course of its implementation, schoolchildren learn to independently acquire knowledge, gain experience in cognitive and educational activities. If a student receives research skills in orienting in the flow of information at school, learns to analyze it, generalize, see a trend, compare facts, draw conclusions and conclusions, then, due to a higher educational level, it will be easier for him to adapt in later life to changing living conditions, he will choose the right future profession, will live a creative life.

The main goals of introducing the project method into school practice are:

Realize your interest in the subject of research; increase knowledge about it and convey it to an interested audience;

Show the ability to use the acquired research experience;

Demonstrate the level of foreign language proficiency; improve the ability to participate in collective forms of communication;

To rise to a higher level of learning, education, development, social maturity.

When organizing work on a project, it is important to comply with certain conditions:

The topics of projects can be related both to the country of the language being studied, and to the country of residence; students are focused on compiling and comparing events, phenomena, facts from the history and life of people from different countries, approaches to solving certain problems, etc.;

The problem offered to students is formed in such a way as to orient students to attract facts from related fields of knowledge and diverse, if possible, authentic sources of information;

It is necessary to involve all students in the class in the work on the project (projects), offering each task, taking into account the level of his language proficiency.

The following project topics can be proposed:

• Voyager en France. Travel in France.
• Les regions de la France. Regions of France.
• La telecommunication. French telecommunications.
• La medecine en France et en Russie. Medicine in France and Russia.
• La religion et la culture en France moderne. Religion and culture in contemporary France.
• Tunnel sous la Manche et Eurostar. Channel Tunnel and Eurostar.
• La Bourgogne médiévale... du XXIe siècle. Visit medieval Burgundy... XXI century.

The implementation of these projects involves the range of information, research and language aspects.

information range. This means that the student must be able to navigate in a large number of sources (written, oral, visual); select those information, events, facts that will help him best reveal the subject of his research and exclude more private, secondary information, details.

Research aspect. The student should be able to choose from the numerous problems related to the topic of the project, those that are significant in their importance, informative, interesting to others, and relevant. At the same time, the student must have the ability to analyze the material, compare, predict, generalize, draw conclusions based on their learning experience, erudition, and creativity.

Language aspect. The student must be able to describe or verbally state the course and result of his research using a foreign language. It is important to express the author's attitude to the subject of research, to the problems under consideration.

The above characteristics apply to both a monoproject and a collective project. Each selected project involves the development of its own strategy and tactics for implementation, the organization of students' activities, and the evaluation of work results.

More appropriate and fruitful from a pedagogical point of view are collective projects. They are interesting and important because a large number of students are involved in the work on them.

Collective projects require great efforts not only from the authors, but also from teachers of a foreign language, involving teachers of other subjects as consultants.

When organizing the work of students, a certain sequence in execution is assumed. There will be similarities in the content of work on a monoproject and a collective project, as well as some differences.

We will illustrate the methodology of work on the example of a specific project “The French language and France in my life” (“Le français et la France dans ma vie”).

One student is working on a monoproject. At the beginning, he tells the topic of the project chosen by him at the lesson. It is desirable that the student chooses it himself.

The author substantiates the motives for choosing a particular project. The student emphasizes the relevance of the project topic for public life, for expanding the cognitive and educational level of those who will get acquainted with the results of the study, the desire and opportunity to reveal and develop the topic in an interesting way for their comrades and teachers.

Students and teachers express their views in support of the chosen topic, offer various aspects of the problem for research.

Already at this stage, the level of the student's language training will become clear, since the author of the project will present the arguments in a foreign language.

In the next lesson, you should formulate the problems that the student has chosen for research. At this point, he had time to think, to comprehend the topic, before independently identifying questions orienting to the approximate content of his work. Most likely, the student will not cope with this task completely. A teacher and classmates will come to help him.

Here is an example of the problems of the project “French language and France in my life”:

The study of French aroused an interest in French music, theater, literature, everything that concerns France. I want to know France well. Perhaps this will be useful to me in the future. I just want to be erudite in all matters. It will help me to be more useful to my country.

I read a lot about France. I saw and felt the spiritual wealth of the people. Getting acquainted with the life of modern France, I involuntarily think about what unites the ordinary people of France and Russia, how Russia can be spiritually enriched.

Perhaps my future profession will also be related to foreign languages.

I want to show the connection between the cultures of the world. I need it to maintain friendship, communication, correspondence with friends.

The next stage in the organization of work assumes that participants in different projects will discuss specific research problems, clarify their wording, and set deadlines. During the discussion, the erudition of the participants, their educational outlook, their knowledge of other sources other than textbooks is revealed.

When choosing a collective project, the initiative may come from the teacher, who unobtrusively suggests one or more options in advance, being confident in the collective interest of students in this type of work. When organizing work on a collective project, a curator is selected to track the progress and pace of the planned implementation, difficulties in the way of research. If necessary, the teacher should come to the rescue. The interim reports of the project participants are also useful. In a discussion on a collective project, the opinion of all participants is necessarily heard. Their performances will show whether the level of preparation of students is the same, whether contradictions and disagreements will arise in the process of work, which will hinder its implementation; it will become clear to what extent the project participants are a team of like-minded people.

A collective project goes through the following stages of work organization: justification, agreement on the composition of participants, selection of a problem and its logical alignment, selection of a curator, setting a deadline, frequency of progress reports, discussion and selection of information sources.

Here is an approximate list of problems of the collective project “French language and France in my life”:

• France in my heart.
• What can be proud of a resident of France.
• How a schoolboy in France prepares for the future life.
• The art and culture of France is for everyone.

Projects can be drawn up in writing and through public defense. The scope of written projects will vary depending on the type of project and the timing of the project. As a rule, the volume of a short-term monoproject will be smaller. It covers a relatively small range of topics. If only a few days are allotted for the preparation of a mono-project, then it is possible to present it orally (which is considered to be a defense) at the lesson, with a collective discussion and evaluation of the work done.

If the project is serious in terms of issues, it involves an in-depth study, the time for its implementation can reach up to several months. In this case, it is better to submit it in writing.

So, we see two leading lines in the implementation of the project methodology in a school with in-depth study of foreign languages. Both areas are equally important.

The first line is to choose the topic of the project, highlight the problems in it, outline the directions and course of its development, fill it with interesting material and content, complete it logically, and demonstrate your erudition in the subject of research.

In the process of this research activity, the educational horizons of students expand, a persistent cognitive interest in getting to know different branches of scientific knowledge increases, participation in the dialogue of cultures becomes natural, in a certain sense the level of professional communication is formed, a broad view of the world as a single cultural, ecological habitat in the scale of the entire planet.

A student capable of such research activity is more mature in his social consciousness and is able to take a certain position of a sane person when assessing any social, political, economic situation.

The second line provides for the presentation by means of a foreign language of the course of the study and the results obtained with all its components.

In this aspect of the work, students demonstrate the level of knowledge of a foreign language in its content, in knowledge of the linguistic system and its adequate and correct application.

There is a clear picture of what the student has learned in the process of mastering a foreign language.

The experience of studying school projects testifies to the high level of students' learning. The vocabulary of works is rich and varied.

In all respects, school projects can be considered research, independently completed.

The foreign policy of Paris: a sober assessment and faith in the future are needed

In foreign policy, constancy always prevails over dynamics. The reign of François Hollande only confirms this rule: maintaining the status of a "great power" is elevated to an absolute, revealing the fear of the decline of the "former" France. French foreign policy, according to Foreign Minister Laurent Fabius, pursues four goals: participation in maintaining peace and security on a global scale, preventing global environmental disasters, promoting the European project and improving the French economy. These ambitions are hardly able to hide the deep identity crisis caused by the economic and social situation in France, one of the symptoms of which is the surge of Euroscepticism.

The results of the elections to the European Parliament in May 2014 can be considered a natural development of trends that emerged back in 2005, when the French voted “no” to the European Constitution in a referendum. Such challenges cannot be ignored in view of the danger of weakening national and European unity.

In other words, there is a need to solve the "specific French problem" that consists in the inability of both the right and the left to cut public spending and carry out structural reforms. Even more important are the psychological barriers, namely pessimism and lack of faith in the future, which paralyze the will of the French. In a January 2014 sociological survey, 85% of respondents admitted that, in their opinion, France is in a state of decline. Theoretically, a foreign policy that presupposes "comprehension and practical solution of international issues" should contribute to correcting the situation. If we talk about comprehending international issues, an adequate perception of the world requires a sober assessment and the ability to translate it. The practical solution of international problems requires a coherence of course and the ability to adapt, in order to use them to benefit from the processes of globalization and prevent the consequences of the transformation of external threats. Both reflection and practice should be based on some common idea. Let's try to contribute to its development by outlining priority areas in analysis and forecasting for foreign policy purposes.

Priority scopes

France occupies a central place in Europe. This remains her main asset. Since the Schuman Plan (May 1950), Europe, and Germany in particular, have played a major role in French foreign policy. However, according to a report by France Strategie, "by mid-2014, the threat of a collapse of Europe remains very real." One factor that poses such a threat is the deep division between France and Germany. Indeed, the "power difference" between the two countries has only increased over the past ten years. The German model is often spoken of in order to highlight France's incapacity for structural reforms. In Germany, the share of exports in GDP increased from 24% in 1995 to 52% in 2013. The improvement of the country's trade balance was achieved at the expense of France, Italy and Great Britain. Of the European NATO member states, France and England bear the brunt of the costs for the needs of the alliance (more than 50%). Since 2010, the two countries have been linked by the Lancaster Agreement, effectively exercising co-leadership on defense issues in Europe. There is no doubt that the so-called. brexit, that is, the possible exit of the UK from the European Union, will not be slow to affect the balance of European institutions and will negatively affect the perception of the EU in the world. In addition, France will automatically lose its central role in Europe; therefore, this issue will be decisive in the coming years.

Africa, a vast continent undergoing profound transformation, is of great importance to Paris due to various strategic, economic and migratory factors. The economic development of Black Africa, especially areas rich in energy resources, opens up new opportunities and creates competition between foreign investors. France is showing a keen interest in military cooperation through a series of defense agreements: recently, despite the cuts in the military budget, full-scale military operations were carried out in Libya, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, and the Central African Republic, demonstrating the excellent combat readiness of the French troops. With the start of the military operation in Mali, French public opinion realized the seriousness of the situation in the Sahel: the destabilization of the situation poses a threat not only to the countries of the Sahel region, but also to European states - even if Paris failed to convince its partners that their security, among other things, , depends on this distant territory.

True, the development of events in Libya after the Franco-British military operation in 2011 makes us think about the political consequences of this type of “pinpoint” actions. The appearance in 2006 of the organization "Al-Qaeda in the countries of the Islamic Maghreb" made adjustments to the traditional ideas about the border, as if clearly dividing Africa into northern and "black". The events in Libya, the change of regime in Tunisia during the "Arab Spring" make it necessary to closely monitor the development of Morocco and Algeria. The Algerian issue, a taboo of sorts, remains an essential element of French foreign policy, although the uncertainty about the future of Algeria after the departure of Bouteflika and the sudden changes in the course of Paris and Algeria towards each other can undermine ties between the two countries.

Another priority direction of foreign policy should be considered the Middle East. Since 1967, France has sought to influence the participants in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, recognizing the rights of both sides. At the same time, its Arab policy has always been based on the idea of ​​maintaining trade exchanges with the countries of the Persian Gulf, selling weapons and purchasing energy resources; Today, the future of French military technology depends in part on the supply of weapons to these countries. Since 1995, France has been developing ties with the United Arab Emirates, and a permanent military base has appeared in Abu Dhabi. Agreements on military cooperation have been signed with Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Kuwait, primarily providing for joint exercises and training of the officers of these countries in France. Having become the owner of the Elysee Palace, Francois Hollande began to strengthen ties with Riyadh. French diplomacy allows some deviation from this line only in two issues (related to each other): Iran's nuclear program and the civil war in Syria. Paris staked on the imminent fall of Bashar al-Assad, but was forced to accept the collapse of its plans when Washington, taking into account the Russian initiative to neutralize the Syrian chemical arsenal (September 2013), refused military intervention in Syrian affairs. It is in the Middle East direction that one can expect a noticeable evolution in the foreign policy of Paris in the foreseeable future; this applies primarily to negotiations with Iran, the war in Syria and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Relations with the three superpowers

Relations with Washington are the cornerstone of French foreign policy. Over the past decade, they have gone from opposition to American intervention in Iraq - in this Paris was in solidarity with Berlin and Moscow - to close cooperation on a range of issues. The two countries cooperate closely in the fight against terrorism: Edward Snowden's revelations caused a much greater reaction in Germany than in France. Since returning to NATO military structures in 2008, Paris has remained a staunch ally of Washington; the return itself, better than any other event, symbolizes the evolution of foreign policy under President Sarkozy. However, Barack Obama's decision not to intervene in the Syrian conflict shows America's unwillingness to follow the lead of Paris. Negotiations on a Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) agreement will draw on significant political resources to redefine the scope of the transatlantic dialogue. Due to the weakness of the economy, Paris is in a less advantageous position in these negotiations than Germany. Nevertheless, one of France's short-term goals should be to defend its positions on certain issues.

In 2014, Paris and Beijing celebrated the 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations. As in the case of Algeria, investments in China are backed by government guarantees. It is China that is the main object of the “economic diplomacy” advocated by the French Foreign Ministry: it is not only about promoting French business in China, but, above all, about attracting Chinese investors and tourists to France. However, the evolution of this policy in three directions can be noted. First, the desire of Paris to maintain a modus vivendi between China and the United States is hardly feasible today through diplomatic means. Second, the 2013 French white paper stated much less ambitious targets in the Asia-Pacific region than in 2008. Finally, in an attempt to correct its eastern policy, traditionally oriented towards China, Paris is also developing strategic relations with other countries in the region: India (to which it supplies Rafale aircraft), Japan, Australia, Korea, Indonesia, Singapore and Vietnam.

Under the influence of the Syrian and Ukrainian crises, the nature of France's relations with Russia has changed. Contrary to routine statements about Russian-French friendship, relations are in decline due to deep differences in the assessment of world events. According to the Russian point of view, the US-British intervention in Iraq only led to the resumption of the age-old conflict between the Sunnis and the Shiites and upset the delicate balance in the region. Moscow believes that, unlike Paris and Berlin, it remains true to the position it took during the US-British invasion of Iraq in 2003. As for Paris, Russia regards its actions in Libya as an intervention, and calls its position on Syria “adventurist”. According to Moscow, French policy reflects the interests of Saudi Arabia and Qatar. France, for its part, points to the tightening of the regime of Vladimir Putin and supports the anti-Russian sanctions imposed after the annexation of Crimea and the destabilization of the situation in eastern Ukraine. It is obvious that Paris will have to use serious diplomatic resources in the near future in order to balance German influence on European relations with Russia and other Eastern European countries.

"Horizontal" questions

The economic situation in France remains very troubling, threatening the euro area's macroeconomic balance. Analysts characterize the situation as follows: "France is a debtor country with a current account deficit and no visible prospects for overcoming this trend, with most of the public debt holders living outside the country." One way to resolve the crisis could be to bring the positions of France and Germany to some common denominator, since the single currency is not viable without effective economic management. As at other key moments in its history (the Pinet-Rueff plan of 1958 comes to mind), France cannot do without a financial recovery of the economy if it values ​​its independence, which since 1958 has been the motto of its foreign policy. But after the introduction of the euro, the financial recovery of France is possible only in coordination with the economic policies of partners. Euro is a symbol of the whole European project; it has become a recognized world currency, imposing a certain discipline on the EU countries, which France will have to observe if it does not want to jeopardize European construction.

To take advantage of the opportunities offered by globalization, an open economy must be fully integrated into global flows: France ranks seventh in the McKinsey Global Integration Index. Data flows are of paramount importance for all economic activity; their direction and control is henceforth the most important task. Recently, the problem of “digital sovereignty” has become widespread. Just like the euro, digital information is a factor in profound transformations of the entire system - transformations that can no longer be seen only in national terms. The marginalization of Europe in the global digital technology market is alarming. There is a risk that in the near future any data and information will flow to Europe through intermediary countries that are not European states. Europe must, as soon as possible, take over the development of digital technologies and occupy the niche intended for it - between the United States, which, after the revelations of Snowden, lost moral authority in this area, and authoritarian regimes, which seek to subjugate the Internet to their power. One of the tasks of Paris should be the development of "digital" diplomacy. To implement this idea, it is necessary, first, to listen to the demands of civil society for the democratization of foreign policy and use the opportunities provided by information and communication technologies (TIC) in public diplomacy; secondly, to develop the concept of Internet governance, consistent with the country's industrial policy in the network sphere.

The French independence policy pursued by General de Gaulle was based on two principles: the development of nuclear weapons and the creation of energy, including the peaceful atom. France has managed to build a diversified energy system. However, its energy policy cannot remain within the national framework; from now on, it should be built and carried out at the pan-European level, in close cooperation with industrial enterprises. In contrast to the digital realm, in the field of energy Europe has a number of large companies operating in the global market. Europe's energy policy is driven by three factors: concern for the environment, competitiveness and security. There are successes and failures along the way. The fight against climate change is a priority in modern French diplomacy, but it is only one of the aspects of the energy theme.

The preparation and conduct of a foreign policy course depend on many factors. At the end of our article, we will designate three of them.

First, in France, since 1918, there has been a close relationship between defense and finance, power and impotence, and it is here that the current disputes about the amount of military spending should be sought. These discussions, touching the very essence of the country's diplomatic positioning, also testify to the authorities' awareness of threats coming from outside. European leaders, wanting their share of the peace dividend, have cut defense spending significantly, including France, although to a lesser extent than other countries. But European leaders have to deal with new forms of conflict development. Ensuring national security remains the main task of foreign policy: one should never stop at what has been achieved and consider it fully accomplished. Today, France, thanks to its weapons, still has some advantages over other states.

Secondly, it is necessary to note the constancy, in other words, the stability, of French foreign policy. In this regard, we recall the negative attitude towards globalization in France, which is facilitated, on the one hand, by the lack of economic culture among the French, and, on the other hand, by the loss of the traditional national culture by the French elite. We see a "devaluation of national history" coupled with a "new type of attitude to the past", which is characterized by superficiality, emotionality and moralizing. Thus, "emotional diplomacy" may appear, which is absolutely incompatible with the traditional type of foreign policy that has developed over time.

And the last. The "specific French problem" seems to be related to the evolution of the elites and their claims. The elite, unlike other segments of the population, benefit from globalization; while a certain part of the elite openly rejects the restrictions that the idea of ​​national cohesion requires. The problem is not with the elite's attitude towards globalization, but with its attitude towards France. The decline of France, which has been predicted so many times, will come only after the decline of the elite. How it happened in 1940.

Thomas Gomard is a doctor of historical sciences, specialist in international relations, head of the Russian and CIS studies program at the French Institute of International Relations (IFRI). He has taught at Paris 1 University, as well as at King's College London and the EU Institute for Military Studies in Paris. He is a teacher at the Higher Military School Saint-Cyr of the French Armed Forces. In 2001 he was invited to MGIMO. Author of the books: 'Double detente: French-Soviet relations between 1958 and 1964' (2003), 'Russian-French relations from Moscow's point of view' (2002), as well as numerous articles on Russian issues. The creator of the electronic collection of expert articles about Russia and the CIS countries is 'Russie. Nei. Visions' in English, French and Russian based on IRFI.

Political science.

1. The subject of political science, its main categories, modern political science schools.
2. Methods of political science. Expert political knowledge: analytics and forecasting
3. Politics as a social phenomenon: genesis and evolution
4.Policy actors and political actors .
5. Types of policy and their content. Institutional Aspects of Policy

_Tpology of power (at least 3)

9. Political power: signs and definitions
10. Levels of manifestation of political power.
11. Problems of political power


14. The structure of the political system model IN TETR.

15. Functions of the political system



19. Genesis and evolution of the concept of "state"


22. Forms of government


25. The genesis of the concept and the modern idea of ​​civil society
26. The genesis of the concept and the modern idea of ​​the rule of law
27. Features of the formation and development of civil society and the rule of law in modern Russia
28. Theories of elites
29. Political elite as a subject of politics
30. Political bureaucracy, definition, essence of the concept of "bureaucracy"

33. Typologies of political leadership (at least 3)

35.Political leaders of modern Russia (+give one portrait of a political leader)
36. Essence and basic principles of modern democracy
37. Types of modern democracy
38.Problems of democratization of modern Russian society
39. Political party: the genesis of the concept and definition
40. Functions of a political party as the main subject of civil society
41. Typologies of parties and party systems
42. Political consciousness: characteristics and definition
43. Features of the political consciousness of Russians
44. Political ideology as a kind of mass consciousness
45. Main ideological currents in the modern world
46. ​​"Public consciousness" and "mass consciousness": similarities and differences
47. Political culture: concept, place and role in the political system
48. Typology of political culture
49. Features of the political culture of Russians 0. Political socialization: the concept and relationship with political culture
51. Political behavior: definition, types, types
52. Forms of political interaction: political struggle, confrontation, compromise, consensus
53. Deviant behavior. The phenomenon of the crowd
54. Theory of political conflicts
55. Political participation: the concept and objective condition for the participation of citizens in politics
56. Features of the political participation of Russians
57.Modern electoral systems
58. Comparative analysis of electoral systems
59. Election campaign: definition and stages of implementation

The subject of political science, its main categories, modern political science schools.

SUBJECT: P - a system of scientific ideas about the mechanism of formation and functioning of politics, about the patterns of development and interaction of political. Systems, about the features of the existence of watered. institutions and the dynamics of political processes.

CATEGORIES: political power
politic system
political regime
political process
political forecasting
political leadership
political elite
political pluralism.m

SCHOOLS: 1. ANGLO-AMERICAN - development of problems of political modernization, stability of political conflicts, foreign policy S.F. Huntington

2. FRENCH - development of problems of the typology of political regimes, the legitimacy of the party-political infrastructure of M. Duverger

3. GERMAN - comparative analysis of political systems, the problem of the functioning of civil society and the rule of law (G. Mayer, I. Fetcher).

4.POLISH - a conceptual study of the political life of society, the main directions of the democratization of the political system

2. Methods of political science. Expert political knowledge: analytics and forecasting

Institutional method - watered. life analysis. Through the prism of activity watered. institutions.

Historical - revealing the connection of the present - past - future

Sociological - consideration of politics in its conditionality of social economy, ideological and cultural rel.

Comparative - comparative

2 direction in the USA - behaviorism (psychological approach) and structural-functional analysis. (sociological)

3. Politics as a social phenomenon: genesis and evolution

The term "politics" is generated by ancient Greek. Political Thought and literally means "what belongs to the state."

Plato called politics the royal art. Aristotle interpreted politics as public ethics. (The art of governing)

Machiavelli began to interpret politics as an activity to strengthen the state. (The art of the sovereign xzitro to manage)

Subsequently, a Marxist concept was developed:

Policy is always determined by economic rel.

Politics is a class struggle

The Marxist concept was supplemented by the concept of Weber. He considered politics to be a manifestation of societies. Ratio Regarding power, but the main idea is that politics is a special kind of HUMAN. Days

Parsons concept - social. Determination mechanism. Collect. Goals and government structure that are united for political actions.

There are 4 periods:

State-monocentric period (the state is the bearer of power over people)

The period when, along with the state, civil society arises with its subjects.

Socio-polycentric approach (ideas of pluralism, interaction between authorities and social groups)

The period when the state is more and more pushed aside by self-government of more and more free individuals.

4. Political actors and political actors

In political science, political subjects are identified who have their own interests and the ability to fight for them. Freedom and independence.

1. Functional entities: army, church, opposition, media, etc.

2. Social subjects: classes, layers, social, territories, professional communities, interest groups, family.

3. Political subjects along the horizontal line of power: state, parliament, government, courts, prosecutor's office, elite, leaders.

Political subjects of civil society: self-governing organizations, general political movements, political parties, political leaders, etc.

5. Types of policy and their content. Institutional Aspects of Policy

FOREIGN POLICY- activities of the state in the international arena, regulating relations with other subjects of foreign policy activity: states, foreign parties and other public organizations, world and regional international organizations.

DOMESTIC POLICY- a set of areas of economic, demographic, social integration, socio-cultural, repressive, etc. activities of the state, its structures and institutions, focused on the preservation or reform of the existing socio-political system

MILITARY POLICY- part of the general policy of certain social forces and institutions of power specially created by them, aimed at preparing and using (deliberate or forced, military or non-military) means of armed violence to achieve certain class, national or universal goals; for warfare or counteraction.

GEOPOLITICS- one of the fundamental concepts of the theory of international relations, characterizing the place and specific historical forms of the impact of territorial and spatial features of the position of states or blocs of states on local, regional, continental and global international processes.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY- policy aimed at the protection and improvement of the natural environment, rational use and renewal of natural resources

6.Characteristics of power as a social category: patterns of manifestation

The phenomenon of power, its duality occupied the minds of philosophers, sociologists, political scientists.

This duality has given rise to numerous concepts that explain its essence. They can be divided into attributive-substantial And relational.

A-S: power is defined as the ability of some political entity to impose its will on someone.

R: emphasizes the behavioral aspect, interpreting power as a clash of 2 styles of behavior, in which one side imposes its will.

Communicative approaches: c - a mechanism for people to communicate in order to coordinate their actions, provided that the general interest prevails over private ones.

For power relations to arise, at least 2 individuals are needed. Power begins where submission begins. Subordination is based on the inequality of people.

8. Types of power and their content

economic power(plutocracy) (Greek: power of the rich) here it is not just about wealth, but about wealth turned into power. EV, based on wealth, does not flaunt itself. The power regime consists in a huge ability to acquire. Does not resort to violence.

military power from ancient times. Weapons, enemy, hierarchy, discipline are the main concepts. The larger and better equipped the armed forces, the greater the share of power belongs to them. Without an adversary, explosives lose their meaning of existence. The purpose of military power is to wage war.

Charismatic power is theocratic. In the XX century, this refers to ideological charisma. The founders of extremist, radical ideologies, main. on an irrational utopian idea. on such creeds, the main fascist, national socialist, bolshevik.

XV associated with individual attractiveness, based on personal merit, differs from other types of power. Based on the ability to convince.

Information power

Power of fear (phobocracy)

9. Political power: signs and definitions

SIGNIFICATIONS of 2 individuals. Power begins where submission begins. The basis of subordination is the inequality of people: natural, economic, social, etc.

Subjects can be washed by an individual person, organization. Subjects must have the will to power, manifested in the ability to give orders, commands, orders.

Power is impossible without subordination, the transformation of the subject into an object of influence

DEFINITIONS: Political power (in OSS) - the ability to fully or partially dispose of the state apparatus. In SSS - in addition to the state apparatus, political power includes political subjects of civil society and feedback mechanisms.

10. Levels of manifestation of political power.Russian political tradition

The founder of social and political thought in Russia is considered to be Metropolitan Hilarion (XI century) and his work “The Word of Law and Grace”, the main idea of ​​which is the beneficial entry of the Russian people into the family of Christian peoples, and the main goals are the praise of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, V “ Teachings ”by Vladimir Monomakh (XII century), for the first time in Russian literature, the tasks of princely power were formed: the prince must seek peace in his principality, not allow the strong to offend the common man, strengthen the military might of the state, be true to the word given to his brothers (princes), avoid civil strife. The ideas of the unity of the Russian land, strong princely power, the inadmissibility of enmity between princes run through such literary works of the 12th-13th centuries as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "Zadonshchina".

The most complete and vivid embodiment of the idea of ​​the greatness of the Muscovite state was formed at the beginning of the 16th century. Pskov monk Filofey the theory “Moscow is the third Rome”, according to which the history of mankind is the history of three great states, whose fate is determined by the will of God. The first (Rome) fell due to heresy, the second (Byzantium) entered into a Greek Catholic union and as a result was conquered by the Turks. "Third Rome" was to be Moscow - the guardian of Orthodoxy

In the XVIII century. The idea of ​​unlimited autocratic power was developed by the priest Feofan Prokopovich (1681–1736). In his opinion, the people themselves, for their own benefit, conclude an agreement on the renunciation of all rights and freedoms, on the creation of a state and the empowerment of their ruler.

Russian political thought developed simultaneously with the development of statehood. In Rus' there was no reformation that took place in Europe. There was also no transfer of political views on a person, his natural rights.

12.Legitimacy as the main problem of power

The problem of the legitimacy of power. Legitimate order in society is the most important political value. The ordering of general relations underlies political activity. The decisive factor influencing the degree of orderliness of political relations is the dynamics of the social. interests of different groups in society. Political order cannot be maintained without the cooperation of different political forces. In the absence of political order, the crisis of political power intensifies; people are less and less linking the hope of protecting their own interests with the existing political regime. This turns into alienation of a person from the political process. A purely forced contact between the citizen and the state is established.

13. Political system: definitions and characteristics (dynamic, static, stability)

PS - an integral ordered set of political institutions, political roles, relations, processes, principles of political organization in general, subordinate to the code of political, social, legal norms, historical traditions and the installations of a particular political regime.

PS can be distinguished by the nature of the links between its elements. Andreev distinguishes holistic And summative systems

C - elements are closely interconnected, organically connected.

C is a whole whose property is equal to the sum of the properties of its parts.

It depends on the state of general relations, the level of development of society, whether the PS will be dynamic, static or stagnant.

Dynamism - determines the ability of the system to develop, adapt to changes in society and respond to these changes.

Static systems are forced to oppose the development of society, to come into conflict with it

Stability is a political ideal, a social value. stability is inseparable from democracy.

14. The structure of the political system model

The founder of the theory of political systems - D. Easton. He also formulated the principles of PS sustainability:

PS should be open, but retain the features that define its appearance.

The PS must be closed enough to withstand destructive influences.

The PS must be "self-regulating", maintaining a balance of forces at the input and output.

The Easton model is used as a methodological tool for analyzing the political systems of other states. The input is the general requirements for social and gender institutions. The political process is the process of converting the information received at the input and preparing it for output. Gatekeepers

15. Functions of the political system

Determining the goals of the development of societies - involves the designation of landmarks on which the change in power, institutions, the development of democracy, etc. depends

The power-political integration of society - all the main actions in society should take place in the def. framework. The obligatory nature of state decrees, on giving public authority to politics.

Regulation of the mode of social and political activity - the establishment of such ways of behavior and activities of people, groups, etc., which would ensure the observance of common interests.

The legitimization of the political regime is the correspondence of real political life to official political and legal norms.

16. Characteristics of the political regime

Defining the concept of a political regime, it is necessary to focus not on who rules, but on HOW he rules, in what way and in whose interests. As a result of the interaction of all components of the political system in society, a certain order is formed in which unity political organizations of society, systems of methods for exercising power, systems of rights and freedoms forms a new political phenomenon - political regime. If the form of government answers the question WHO RULES, then the mode answers the question HOW RULES. The regime provides not only dynamism, but also a certain stabilization of the political system. The regime is a set of power structures that allow the ruling class to exercise the powers assigned to it. PR is a set of certain power structures that function within the political system and maintain its stability, taking into account social interests and using specific methods.

17. Signs of the main political regimes of our time

According to the methods of exercising power, regimes are divided into 3 types: democratic, authoritarian, totalitarian.

A: one or a small group rules; unquestioning submission of citizens to power, excludes a wide discussion before making political decisions, criticism of the political course. Contacts of the ruling elite with the public have been reduced to a minimum, public opinion is almost not taken into account by the authorities. In the state apparatus, only supporters of the ruling elite are selected, human rights are violated.

D: It is carried out when the government has more or less broad public support. Assumes: separation and election of power, strict legality, guarantee of human rights and freedoms.

T: Signs:

Total state control over society,

general monopolization and centralization of power in the hands of the ruling minority,

a system of strict police control over all citizens,

ideology of society based on a single state ideology,

unification and regulation of political, social and spiritual life of society.

The dominance of a single ruling party, which is the core of the PS.

18. Political regime in Russia: evolution and features

"Managed Democracy" mode.Features:

Asymmetry of power in favor of the head of state and his apparatus

The weakness of the party system (the parties have not yet managed to become the main mediator between the government and society, they serve the interests of certain elites) the parties supported by the Kremlin achieve the greatest political success.

Lack of an independent justice system – court decisions are made under pressure from the authorities

The omnipotence of bureaucracy - interfere with the freedom of entrepreneurship, hinder the formation of small and medium-sized businesses.

EVOLUTION: the process of formation of the political regime took place under the influence of 2 principles: Asian despotism and some interspersed democratic principles (democratic republic in Novgorod and Pskov). The totalitarian principle prevailed, but in the process of political reforms, the democratic direction also made its way, which, with the departure of the reformer, was again absorbed by the totalitarian one.

11-12 centuries - republics in Nov. And Pskov.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion dealt a blow to the veche system of Russia. Local self-government freezes. The regime of eastern despotism.

After liberation - the power of the prince, but it is limited by the Zemsky Sobor and the Boyar Duma.

Under Ivan the Terrible, totalitarian tendencies intensified. The assembly was dissolved, self-government was liquidated.

But the undivided autocracy was established by Peter 1. Only Alexander 2 was a reformer. He was killed on the day when he wanted to sign the constitution ..

During the revolution of 1905-07 - Russia-constituent monarchy. 1917-democratic republic. In 1917, a situation arose of choosing the path: democracy (leaving the Constituent Council) or totalitarianism (created Soviets)

1985 - the crisis of the totalitarian regime, Gorbachev announced perestroika. ochlocratic regime.

19. Genesis and evolution of the concept of "state"

20. Modern ideas about the state: signs and definitions

The development of ideas about the state-ve went along 2 lines - etatist and anti-etatist. Before 18th century, according to the first, after - 2 each.

T. More and K. Marx believed that any government is a committee of the rich, created to oppress the poor.

Understanding the essence of the state depends on the theoretical approach to it. In the normative approach, the state is interpreted as a set of norms that regulate the behavior of citizens. The institutional approach is characterized by the interpretation of the state as the embodiment of power, as its institution. The general theory of the state was formed by the end of the 19th century and was called legal. According to the theory of three elements, the state exists where there are people, territory and state power. In the modern world, states differ, but have common features:

Separation of public authorities from society, the emergence of a layer of professional managers.

Territory. Laws distributed to people living in a certain territory

Sovereignty i.e. supreme independent power on a certain territory.

Monopoly on the legal use of force, physical coercion.

The right to collect taxes from the population.

Mandatory membership in the state. A person receives citizenship from birth.

The role of a state in international law gives legitimacy to the state, since it is adopted with the consent of the overwhelming majority. Constitutions usually consist of 2 parts. 1 - the norms of relations between citizens and the state, 2 - describe the nature of the state (republic, monarchy, federation, etc.), the status of various authorities. The first constitutions were adopted in the United States and France. In the modern world, only a few states do not have constitutions (Great Britain, Israel, Saudi Arabia ...)

21.Functions of the state, their implementation

It is customary to distinguish between internal and external functions. Internal include political, legal, organizational, economic, social, educational, cultural and educational.

Political function - maintaining general order, political stability, establishing relations with political parties and other public institutions in connection with the formation of state structures, the exercise of power ...

Legal function - lawmaking, development of legal norms, development and adoption of laws. Legal norms are rules of conduct sanctioned by the state.

Organizing function - coordination of the activities of political subjects, monitoring compliance with laws.

Economic function - the development and implementation of tax policy, the allocation of loans, the use of economic sanctions and incentives for the development of certain industries.

Social function - meeting the needs of citizens in labor, housing, maintaining health, social protection ...

The educational function is the democratization of education, ensuring its continuity, providing people with equal opportunities to receive it.

Cultural and educational function - the creation of conditions for meeting the cultural needs of citizens, the formation of their high spirituality.

External functions - protection of borders, forced intervention in the affairs of other states, maintenance and development of interstate relations, regulation of foreign trade ...

23. Forms of government

Monarchy (absolute, parliamentary) and republic (presidential, parliamentary, mixed)

In a monarchy, the formal source of power is one person. The head of state receives his post by inheritance. Absolute - the omnipotence of the head of state, constitutional - the powers of the monarch are limited by the constitution. Constitutional monarchies are divided into dualistic (the monarch is endowed with predominantly executive power) and parliamentary (the monarch actually has representative functions and partially executive ones. Most modern monarchies are parliamentary.

In the republics, the source of power is the majority of the people, the highest authorities are elected by the citizens. Features parliamentary republic- the formation of a government on a parliamentary basis. Parliament performs a number of functions in relation to the government:

Forms and maintains it

Publishes laws

Exercises control over the government

Criticizes government policy, provides alternative government solutions.

Presidential republic The president is both head of state and head of government. He directs domestic and foreign policy and is the supreme commander of the armed forces. The president is most often directly elected by the people.

semi-presidential republic. Clissic sample - France. The president is directly elected, he can issue some laws himself, he can dissolve the parliament .. the president and the government must report to parliament.

24.State structure and balance of power in modern Russia

State structure: in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Russian Federation is a democratic federal legal state with a republican form of government. semi-presidential republic.

Power is exercised on the basis of the separation of powers.

The powers of the President under the Constitution of the Russian Federation are exorbitantly large and multifaceted.

Limited powers of the Federation Council

27. Features of the formation and development of civil society and the rule of law in modern Russia

The formation of civil society is an urgent problem for Russia, because at the moment the activity of our state is aimed at building democracy, and democracy is impossible without civil society. The growing role of civil society was emphasized in Putin's 2004 address to the Federal Assembly.

By the nature of the dominant role of the state, Russia was closer to the eastern type of societies. The state acted as the main initiator of the formation of public institutions. Independence was limited from below. Hence the fragility of law and property relations.. As a result, the traditional society of Russia developed poorly from below, through natural evolution. Any institution was tied to the state. For example, the church. The third estate was not formed in Russia. Russian pre-revolutionary thinkers focused not on the rights but on the duties of the individual to the public.

28. Theories of elites

The term elite gained currency in the early 20th century. The first concepts of elites are associated with the names of Mosca, Pareto, Michels. Mosca tried to prove the inevitability of dividing society into 2 unequal social groups. He called the elite a political class. He noted 2 trends in its development: closedness - the aristocratic elite and openness - the democratic elite. Pareto drew attention to the analysis of the special qualities of the elite: psychological and social. He divided the elite into ruling and counter-elite.

Michels' concept is close to Mosca's, but he focused on the study of social mechanisms that generate elitism. These concepts gave impetus to the research of the groups leading the state. Modern concepts of elites are diverse, but they have common features:

Any democracy is the rule of a well-organized minority over the majority, carried out with the formal consent of the majority.

The representatives of the elite are not typical representatives of the ruled masses. In America, they are mostly wealthy, who have received expensive education, who have prestigious jobs ...

The ruling elite does not consist of people ruling alone. advisers, consultants ...

31. The political elite of modern Russia

The modern Russian elite comes from the party-bureaucratic nomenklatura system. The essence of this system is the appointment of persons to significant positions on the recommendation from above. The last generation of the Soviet elite was very heterogeneous. The nomenklatura was allowed to do what others were forbidden to do and profit from it: to create joint ventures, to receive preferential and interest-free loans ... the state elite and the bureaucracy privatized those state structures that they controlled.

4 stages of transformation of the Russian elite:

1. latent - the time of change in general political consciousness, the creation of conditions for the inclusion of the Soviet elite in new activities

2.conversion period. New areas of activity appear - public policy and business. The once monolithic Soviet elite was divided into an economic and a political elite.

3. period of confrontation. The collapse of the USSR and the transition to a market economy required new actors, and therefore the political fragmentation of the elites is taking place.

4. stabilization period. - new rules of the game were introduced by force, not allowing any elite to take a dominant position

32. Political leader and political leadership: the concept and concepts of formation

Leader in translation from English means leader. Leaders lead different communities. There is a question about the differences between the words leader and manager.

The leader is put forward spontaneously, thanks to authority, and the leader is appointed. A leader is certainly a person, and a leader is a product of conscious personnel selection. Leadership is unstable, it must be constantly confirmed. Leadership is stable, stipulated by laws...informal leaders are often referred to as leaders. But there is a difference: the leader relies on a team of supporters, the leader relies on a narrow vicious circle of people; the leader generates ideas, determines methods for achieving goals, the leader replaces the management of orders, desires .. the concept of leadership is closely related to the concept of leader. Leadership is a complex interaction between a leader and his followers. A political leader is one who is able to change the course of events and the direction of political processes. PLs activate political processes in society.

PL - PERMANENT PRIORITY AND LEGITAL INFLUENCE OF ONE OR SEVERAL PERSONS HOLDING POSITIONS OF POWER ON THE WHOLE SOCIETY, ORGANIZATION OR GROUP.

Concepts: situational, psychological, interactive analysis. Approaches to the concept of leadership:

1.psychological. the concept of Lasswell, who explains the motives of political behavior in the traditions of psychoanalysis. The main motive is the lust for power. The motives can be mental deformations and psychological stresses. Lasswell presdedoval 2 goals: firstly, to supplement the Marxist analysis of society with elements of Freudianism and to find the hidden psychological subtext of the participation of the masses in the revolutionary and labor movement, the desire of leaders for unlimited power.

Compensatory theory - an inferiority complex in childhood was compensated by the ability to dominate people's minds. According to the methodology of Adler and Lasswell in the United States, political portraits of leaders are still being created.

2. sociological approach. The classics of this approach are Lenin and Michels.

From Lenin's point of view, the leaders are the most active representatives of the class with pronounced public interests.

33. Typologies of political leadership (at least 3)

1. Weber's typology . The basis of the typology is the basis of the legitimacy of power.

1) traditional, i.e. based either on the inheritance of power or on traditions.

2) rational-legal i.e. political power obtained on the basis of democratic elections.

3) charismatic te based on the belief of the people in the supernatural qualities of the leader.

2 .Tucker's typology .Foundation - the goal of the leader's impact on society.

1) conservative - maintaining society unchanged

2) reformer - a radical transformation of society

3) revolutionary - the transition to a fundamentally new political system.

3. Typology of Lasswell. The foundation is the place of the leader in the political leadership.

1) administrator - manager

2) agitator - able to influence people, a good speaker.

3) theorist - able to put forward a significant idea, develop a program for its implementation.

34. The problem of political leadership in our country. Political management

A developed democracy is characterized by a constructive type of political leadership, when the voter evaluates the content of the applicants' programs, but we do not have a developed democracy

There are 2 types of leaders in the political life of Russia: idealists and pragmatists. And they defend utopian ideals, outline grandiose but unattainable goals.

P - are content with proven models of political behavior, promising to soon solve the most painful problems. Neither the first nor the second can suit us.

Work in regional administrations, etc. Image a political leader is the image that emerges in the public mind as a result of the impact on the society of the personality of the leader, primarily through the media.

36. Essence and basic principles of modern democracy

The concept of democracy was in connection with the establishment of democracy in Athens. Different meanings must be taken into account.

1 - a type of organization of the state, when not one person has power, but all citizens enjoy equal rights to govern the state.

2 - the form of the structure of any organization based on the equality of its members.

3 - a certain type of worldview. Values: equality, freedom, pluralism.

4 - social movements aimed at the implementation of the democratic ideal.

D is a phenomenon that is in constant development.

The struggle for democracy is the main content of the modern era. The word publicity means the ability to directly address the public .. G - the most important principle of D.

Principles D:

PRINCIPLE OF GLASSNESS

THE PRESENCE OF OPPOSITION

THE PRINCIPLE OF FREEDOM OF CRITICISM

THE PRINCIPLE OF SUBJECTING THE MINORITY TO THE MAJORITY

PRINCIPLE OF TOLERANCE

Strict observance of these principles generates in the individual a sense of human dignity, a consciousness of independence and responsibility for one's own destiny.

39. Political party: the genesis of the concept and definition

The term party comes from the Latin partis - part. The process of party formation goes back to the 17th century. Initially, they were not close-knit organizations, but rather clubs, associations of like-minded people. Suppliers polit.elita.

The PP is a public organization that aims to promote its representatives in the structures of state power.

PP is an organized group that unites the most active adherents of certain ideas.

40. Functions of a political party as the main subject of civil society

Selection and recruitment of political leaders for posts.

Deepening links and relationships between different branches of government, local and central governments

Political socialization of citizens, the formation of their skills to participate in power relations

Patrias most clearly demonstrate their functions in the pre-election and election campaigns.

41. Typologies of political parties.

An ideological platform is placed at the basis of typologies

Doctrinal (focused on protecting the purity of their doctrine)

Pragmatic (for practical expediency)

Charismatic (people unite around a leader)

Doctrinal ones are usually divided into religious and ideological ones.

By quantity: mass, personnel

Strictly centralized

By place in the political system of the country:

parliamentary

Radical opposition

Vanguard parties

Monopoly-state-subjects of totalitarian regimes Political science cheat sheet in Russian society. Formation political science in Russia it went with some delay By compared with ... scientific and teaching staff political scientists, establishing and awarding academic degrees By political sciences and appropriation ...

In the center is a personality with a new mentality /independent, responsible, creative/ Everyone is capable /every child has all kinds of human activity/. The use of intensive methods and techniques / the method of keywords, semantic associations, figurative vision, the technique of “thick and thin questions”, the technique “Finish the sentence”, etc. / So, the essence of the workshop:

Equality of all participants, including the master / teacher-student = partners /. Everyone is capable of creativity. Creating personal motivation. Lack of evaluation and competition. Alternating team and individual work. The importance of not only the result of creative search, but also the process itself / immersion in the process of search, knowledge, self-knowledge /. Workshop principles:

Induction / guidance / - the creation of an emotional mood. Deconstruction / insight / - disappointment in the fullness of knowledge. Stage of creation - stage of creation of new knowledge Socialization - everything that has been done must be made public. The gap is the student's inner awareness of the discrepancy between the old knowledge and the new. Reflection is a reflection of the feelings, sensations that arose in the participant during the workshop. The teacher must create an algorithm of actions that unfolds the creative process. Stages of the lesson /the most significant /