The Old Testament is part of the Christian Bible, the first of 2 parts. This is the oldest Jewish Holy Scripture, which combines the sacred text of Christianity and Judaism.

To date, among the monotheistic religions, the dominant place belongs to Judaism. In turn, the term monotheistic is understood as a religion, the doctrine of which recognizes the existence of only the One God and the denial of the existence of any other deities. Yahweh is represented here as the only God, existing both in the visible and invisible worlds. So that there was a realization of communication between God and people, there were prophets.

The prophets of the Old Testament had to sacrifice something in order to hear the voice of God and be able to convey instructions to the people, the king or the one to whom they were intended. The prophets admonished the people, denounced, taught. So, it was the prophet Samuel (asked from God) who announced that David was chosen as the Anointed of God, that is, the king.

The radical difference between the prophets of the Old and New Testaments must be taken into account. And this is, first of all, the absence of animal sacrifice among the prophets of the New Testament. Sacrifice in ancient times had a significant role, since it meant a symbol of the Savior of the World Christ. In fact, the great prophets of the Old Testament predicted the coming of the Messiah born of the Virgin. The anointed of God - David, and later his son - Solomon (the son of the world), were also prophets who foreshadowed that the Messiah would come from their kind.

The greatest prophet of the Old Testament is Moses, called the God-seer. Moses was able to see God on Mount Sinai, and following his instructions, he wrote the laws of the 10 commandments. The birth of Moses took place during the oppression of the Jewish people by the Egyptian pharaoh. The then-existing decree of throwing all Jewish male babies into the river would have affected Moses, but he was saved by God's Providence and later raised in the royal court. Seeing all the groaning of the Jewish people, Moses preferred to stay with them, and not rule with the Gentiles. And later led his people away from the oppression of the pharaoh.

The names of other prophets are also named in the Bible, whose predictions were recorded and published in a separate book called "Prophets", subdivided into large and small depending on the size of the text. Large ones are attributed to the prophecies prescribed by Daniel, Ezekiel, Isaiah. Minor prophets are Micah, Joel, Nahum, Obadiah and others. You can find out more about these prophets by typing “prophets of the Old Testament names” in the Internet search engine. In the books of the prophets of the Old Testament, one can trace, basically, the idea that everything is the will of God. That is, all the events that take place are sent down by the command of God. The book of the prophet Zephaniah describes that one day cataclysms will come that can be compared with the scale of the global flood, salvation will be prepared only for true believers. True believers will receive salvation from God and life in the Kingdom of Eternal Peace, Joy, Happiness. In the New Testament, the prophets convey messages to the Church of Christ, which are called to edify the people in faith.

Although the books of the prophets in the Old Testament take up little space in terms of text size, they are practically the most important in terms of content. The prophets who spoke about the presence of God in human life and its history were chosen by God himself, but not in his own name. The Bible represents a whole galaxy of God's messengers, replacing each other for 300 years. At the same time, the prophets belong to different classes - and the shepherd, and the king, and the priest, and the singer. The messengers of God appear as fighters against the delusions of society and their era. The first prophets made rather high demands on the people, believing that Israel should unite into a society completely subordinate to the will of the Lord. At the same time, while preaching, the prophets constantly emphasized that the truths they voiced are not new - these are truths that have long been known.

He was merciful to the chosen people, but when the moral decline of the Israelites crossed all limits, he retreated and allowed them to be enslaved. So, 722 BC. was marked by the fall of the northern kingdom of the Jews. The south, Judea, lasted a little more than a hundred years, for the kings and people in it truly revered the One God.

In order for the Jews to repent, the Lord began to send the Old Testament prophets, pointing to the lawlessness that was happening. The chosen ones carried repentant sermons and prophecies about the coming into the world of the Savior, who is destined to save the entire human race from the slavery of sin and death.

The more spiritual help was needed for the chosen people, the louder the Word of God sounded. One by one, the prophets appeared, proclaiming His Will and prophesying the imminent coming of the Messiah.

Prophets from the Old Testament are divided into great and small. There were only four first: Isaiah, Ezekiel and Jeremiah. Each of them had to go his own way in order to fulfill the purpose of the Lord.

Isaiah

The Holy Fathers spoke about the prophet, who lived on the land of Israel in the 8th century BC, as a great and wonderful, insightful and wisest.

Isaiah was called by the Lord for prophetic ministry. He appeared seated on a high throne, surrounded by Seraphim. One of the angels touched Isaiah's mouth with a burning coal from the heavenly altar to cleanse him.

His calling was the salvation of people from the spiritual slavery of pagan worship. Like a burning candle, with its radiance, the prophet denounced unpleasing deeds. It was he who was entrusted to convey to the people the news of the destruction of Judea and the captivity of the Jews. Slavery would not become eternal, and after a measured period, the people of God would return home.

Talking about Christ, Isaiah impressed with the accuracy and clarity of events, for which he received the nickname "Old Testament evangelist." He spoke to people about the immaculate conception in the womb of the immaculate and chaste Virgin, predicted the suffering of Christ in the name of saving people and the possibility of salvation from separation from God through faith.

His words were heard at the time of pagan worship, performed even in Jerusalem itself. The people did not want to hear the speeches of Isaiah, his sermons and laughed at the prophecies, betraying the pious martyr.

Nevertheless, God fulfilled everything promised to the Jews who did not accept His will.

Jeremiah

He was the son of a priest from Anathoth, located near Jerusalem. He was called to the prophetic ministry when he was only 15 years old. It was revealed to the young man that even before his birth he was destined to become the mouth of God. He refused, speaking of his youth and inability to speak beautifully, to which God touched the lips of the future prophet and promised to be there.

For 23 years Jeremiah was engaged in denunciation of the Jews for apostasy and idolatry, predicting disasters and wars for the people. He stopped at the entrance to the temple and preached with threats and tears, for which he received only ridicule, curses, threats, and even beatings.

Visually showing the coming slavery, Jeremiah hung a wooden yoke around his neck, and then an iron yoke. Irritated by the prophetic speeches of the young man, the Jewish elders ordered him to be sent to a pit with fetid mud, where he nearly died. The God-fearing courtier Ebedmelech managed to help the boy free himself, but he did not stop carrying out the prophetic ministry, for which he ended up in prison.

When the Babylonians came to the Kingdom of the Jews, the chosen people believed in the predictions, but it was too late. King Nebuchadnezzar released the young man from prison, allowing him to choose where to live. Jeremiah remained on the ruins of destroyed Jerusalem to mourn the calamities of his country and the folly of his people.

According to legend, Jeremiah hid the Ark of the Covenant along with the tablets in the caves of the city of Nawaf so that the Jews could not find it. The Jews who remained on the land of Judah decided to flee to the land of Egypt after the murder of the governor of the Babylonian king. The Prophet tried to convince them not to do this, because the punishment they fear would find the Jews there as well. Again, not listening to the prophet, the Jews forcibly took him away and settled in the city of Tafnis. Jeremiah lived there for four years, revered by the Egyptians and Jews for the fact that, with God's help, he was able to kill crocodiles by prayer. The prophet tried to reveal to people that the king of Babylon would soon come for them, devastate the land and wipe out the Jewish settlers, but the Jews killed him. And the prediction came true...

Ezekiel

The son of Vuzia lived in the village of Tel Aviv, not far from the Babylonian Nippur, was married, but became a widower. In his house, the Jews often gathered to talk about God and listen to the speeches of Ezekiel. The Jerusalem priest Ezekiel was brought to Babylon among the first captives.

The book of Ezekiel is compositionally more harmonious than Isaiah and Jeremiah, and, for the most part, was written by him. It contains the dates of the most important visions and prophecies, the last one is March 17 (29), 571. The Fathers of the Church agree that soon the prophet died. It is possible that after the death of the teacher, one of the students rebuilt the Book in the traditional manner: a word about the people of God, about the Gentiles and prophecies.

According to legend, the tomb of Ezekiel is located near Birs-Nimrud. The memory of the prophet is honored by the Church on July 21.

Daniel

Among the captives brought to King Nebuchadnezzar were young men of noble birth, Ananias, Mishael and Azariah. The king gave the order to teach them wisdom and leave them for education at court. The Jewish youths, however, honored the covenants of the faith and renounced luxuries and surpluses, eating only water and vegetables. God rewarded them with wisdom, and gave Daniel the ability to interpret dreams. With insight, the young man surpassed the Chaldean sages and was close to the king.

Once Nebuchadnezzar had a dream that impressed him, the contents of which he safely forgot the next morning, so he ordered the wise men to reveal the secret of this dream. The Babylonian magicians and astrologers turned out to be powerless, and Daniel, to the glory of the Lord and with His help, unraveled the content and meaning of the dream.

After a while, the king wished to build a huge statue of himself, so that honors would be paid to her. The youths of Azariah, Ananias and Misael refused and were sent to a fiery furnace. The flame should have immediately consumed the young men, but they calmly walked through the fire, praying. Amazed that the young men remained intact, the king decided to turn to God.

In the time of King Belshazzar, the prophet Daniel found the meaning of an inscription that mysteriously appeared during a celebration on the palace wall. She spoke of the coming fall of Babylon.

During the reign of the Persian king, the slandered Darius the prophet was thrown to the hungry lions, but the predators did not touch him, and he remained unharmed. Delighted and impressed, the king ordered to worship the One God.

Daniel grieved over the Jewish people, justly punished by God for their sins and given into captivity. He repeatedly interceded for him before King Cyrus, who highly valued the prophet. With his righteous life, prayer and piety, Daniel atoned for the sins of his people, for which the fate of the Israelites and the whole world was revealed to him.

Minor Prophets

• Obadiah proclaimed the destruction of Edom, the coming judgment on all nations;
• And she talked about the fate of the people of Israel, the forthcoming slavery of the Jews and the suffering of Christ;
• Joel predicted the coming of the Day of Judgment, when the Holy Spirit would be poured out on everyone, regardless of gender and age;
• Amos denounced the shortcomings of the social structure and human qualities. He identified the chosenness of the Jews with a high measure of responsibility;
• Hosea spoke about Christ, the sins of the Jews, the coming captivity and the spread of true knowledge of God;
• Micah revealed the fall of both Kingdoms, God's punishment, the future birth of the Savior;
• Nahum predicted the fall of the idolatrous, depraved and sorcerous Nineveh;
• Zephaniah pointed out the need for repentance, the permission of the Jewish countries;
• Habakkuk the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem, the Babylonian captivity of the Jews, the return of the latter to their homeland was revealed;
• Haggai called on the people to repent, to show concern not only for their own home, but also for the house of the Lord;
• Zechariah announced the coming of the Messiah, trying to convey the meaning of his coming, the need to be worthy of sacrifice;
• Malachi the role of a harsh critic was assigned: he accused the Jews of insufficient diligence in the affairs of God, the priests of insufficient faith and vices. He talked a lot about the Advent, the Forerunner and God's Judgment.

Such are they, the prophets of the Old Testament...

Amos - small prophet, one of the rare examples of Northern Israel prophets who left their mark on the Bible. One day, feeling a call from God, he entered the temple. It took place in Bethel (in Hebrew - Beit El), a small town in the north of what was then Israel. He interrupted the service and began to convict people of sins on behalf of God. At first, the parishioners were confused and did not react properly. However, after Amos began to do this regularly, the Jews began to conflict with him. The main enemy of Amos was the priest Amaziah. Between Amos and Amaziah there was a dialogue retold in the seventh chapter, which shows what really happened. (1:17)

“And Amaziah, the priest of Bethel, sent to Jeroboam king of Israel, saying, Amos is making a riot against you in the midst of the house of Israel; the earth cannot bear all his words; for thus says Amos: Jeroboam will die by the sword, and Israel will certainly be led captive out of their land» . And Amaziah said to Amos, Seer! go and retire to the land of Judah; eat bread there and prophesy there, but prophesy no more at Bethel, for it is the sanctuary of the king and the royal house. And Amos answered and said to Amaziah: I am not a prophet, nor the son of a prophet; I was a shepherd and gathered sycamores. But the Lord took me from the sheep and the Lord said to me:« go prophesy to my people Israel» . Now listen to the word of the Lord. You say:« do not prophesy against Israel and do not speak against the house of Isaac» . For this, this is what the Lord says: your wife will be dishonored in the city; your sons and daughters will fall by the sword; your land will be divided by a boundary line, and you will die in an unclean land, and Israel will certainly be brought out of their land.” (3:02)

Amos is one of the last prophets of the northern kingdom before its catastrophe. He says that he did not intend to be a prophet. He was a simple shepherd, but there was no one else - and the Lord chose him.

So the Lord asks the prophet Isaiah: “Whom shall I send? and who will go for us?” Isaiah says, "Here I am, send me." This is how willingness to serve the Lord is described. Jeremiah will then say: “I could live happily ever after, but I say what I don’t like, and for this I suffer persecution, but the Lord obliges me to say it.” This is very characteristic of the prophets. They are not at all proud of their position, they are not looking for any benefits. On the contrary, they would be glad to say pleasant things, as the court prophets say. But the Lord encourages us to speak not what is pleasing to the ear. (4:10)

And so the prophet Amos proclaims the judgment of God over different peoples. He starts from a distance. He also speaks of Damascus, that is, of the future Syrians, of the Philistines, of the Phoenicians, of the Edomites, of the Moabites. He warns all pagans that the Lord will strike them for their sins. What are the sins? Let's pay attention. " Thus says the Lord: for three crimes of Damascus and for four I will not spare him, because they threshed Gilead with iron threshers. And I will send fire on the house of Hazael, and it will devour the halls of Benhadad. And I will break the gates of Damascus." Because they killed people. This reminds me of the war with Gilead.

He speaks of the Philistines in a similar way: "For the three crimes of Gaza and for four, I will not spare her, because they brought them all into captivity to deliver them to Edom." That is, again, for cruelty to people during the war.

About the Phoenicians: because they handed over all the captives to Edom and did not remember the fraternal union. About the Edomites: because Edom persecuted his brother, suppressed feelings of kinship. The Edomites were the descendants of Esau, the brother of Isaac. (5:50)

About the sons of Ammon: ...because they cut open pregnant women in Gilead to expand their limits» .

Their sins do not become virtues because the will of God can be done through them. “For three crimes of Gaza and for four I will not spare her”, “...z and the three crimes of Tyre”, “...z but three crimes of Edom." Very often in prophecy proper names are used instead of the names of peoples. The ancestor's own name is called: "and you, Judas," which means "and you, Jews."

Israel may suddenly remember his old name - Jacob. “I will take you into captivity, Jacob…” That is, this is an appeal to a proper name, which means a whole people. Sometimes this appeal goes not to the ancestor, but to the city: Gaza, or Damascus, or Tire.

Amos proclaims the judgment that the Lord will work on all nations. This is not a fatal predestination. Fate is what has already passed. What you have built, not what awaits you in the future. (8:15)

Having denounced these peoples in their cruelty and in the fact that they shed much blood of the innocent, the prophet Amos turns to the Jews. “For three crimes of Judah and for four I will not spare him, because they rejected the law of the Lord, and did not keep his ordinances, and their idols, after which their fathers walked, led them astray.” Unlike the Gentiles, the Lord convicts the Jews not because they are immoral, but because they have forgotten the law of the Lord.

The prophet Amos says that Gentiles are judged according to the law of conscience written in their hearts. The apostle Paul would later repeat this thought.

Finally, Amos moves on to Israel, speaking in the name of the Lord: “I will not spare him, because they sell the right man for silver and the poor for a pair of sandals. They long for the dust of the earth to be on the head of the poor, and pervert the path of the meek; even father and son go to the same woman to dishonor my holy name. On clothes taken as a pledge, they recline at every altar, and they drink the wine exacted from the accused in the house of their gods. (10:08)

“They lie on garments taken as a pledge at every altar.” What does it mean? There was a commandment in the law of Moses that if you took something as a pledge, you must give it to a person before sunset, because he gave you the last, he will have nothing to sleep on or nothing to walk on. It should never have been left behind. “I destroyed before them the Amorite, whose height was like the height of a cedar, and who was strong as an oak tree; I destroyed its fruit above and its roots below. But I brought you out of the land of Egypt, and led you in the wilderness for forty years, that you might inherit the land of the Amorites. I chose from your sons to be prophets, and from your young men to be Nazirites; is it not so, children of Israel? says the Lord. And you gave the Nazirites wine to drink and commanded the prophets, saying: "Do not prophesy." Behold, I will crush you as a chariot laden with sheaves crushes - and the agile will not have the strength to run, and the strong will not hold his fortress, and the brave will not save his life, neither the archer will not stand, nor the runner will not run away, nor the one who sits on a horse will not save his life. And the bravest of the brave will flee naked in that day, says the Lord.” (11:36)

Through the prophets, the Lord every time reminds Israel of what it meant for their ancestors to be brought out of the land of Egypt. It brings them back to the memory of the promise of Abraham, to the fact that their existence is not important in itself, but is necessary for the fulfillment of God's plans.

All the prophets trace the idea that Israel will soon be gone, only Judah will remain. What is Judea? This is a tiny place. It is not trampled only by the lazy. From the north and from the south are great powers, but Judea is a small place. A closed people lives in it. If the Lord did not need him, he would have disappeared long ago, dissolved, as it happened thousands of times on earth, when a small nation was assimilated or dissolved into another. The only thing for which the Lord brought out, gathered and preserved the Jewish people in all these ups and downs, so that they would serve the Lord. (13:09) Judah had no economic or political goals. Only one spiritual goal is to serve God.

Why first enter, and then go out and wander somewhere? This is because God sees it this way. Only in this connection can we talk about being chosen, about the special destiny of the Israeli people. More has been given to you and more will be asked of you.

Israel does not obey the prophet Amos when the Lord through him gives revelations, warnings about the need for repentance. Israel, in the person of their representatives, priests and courtiers, expels Amos from Bethel. (14:25)

Then Amos says, "The Lord said, behold, I will put a plumb line in the midst of my people Israel; I won't forgive him anymore» . The measure of God's patience is overflowing. A limit has been set. Sees Amos and a basket of ripe fruits, as written in the eighth chapter. And we remember the vision that Joseph had in prison. There was also a basket that the birds had pecked at. And he predicted that he would be executed. And here Amos sees a basket with ripe fruits and interprets this himself as a sign of the imminent death of Israel.

Amos proclaims the coming of the day of the Lord. The fact is that before the prophet Amos, the messianic aspirations of Israel were directed to earthly well-being, and many believers expected an era of bliss with God, first of all, on earth. The day of the Lord was spoken of as the last day, after which universal happiness would come on earth. It was also believed that every person longs for the day of the Lord. And suddenly Amos speaks in a completely different way: “Woe to those who desire the day of the Lord! Why do you need this day of the Lord? he is darkness, not light, just as if someone ran away from a lion and a bear would meet him, or if he came home and leaned his hand against the wall and a snake would sting him. Is not the day of the Lord darkness, but light? he is darkness, and there is no radiance in him. (16:46)

And he will also say: “The Lord God says: I will make the sun go down at noon and darken the earth in the midst of a bright day, and I will turn your feasts into mourning, and all your songs into mourning, and I will put sackcloth on all loins and baldness on every head; and I will mourn in the land as for my only son, and its end will be like a bitter day.” . So, if the Israelites do not believe the calls of the Lord, then the day of the Lord will turn from the desired day of God's visitation into a day of wrath and a day of destruction, into a terrible day. Amos saw it. The prophet calls the people to repentance, but does not see repentance.

At the same time, on behalf of the Lord, it is said: “I hate, I reject your holidays and do not smell the sacrifices during your solemn meetings. If you offer me a burnt offering and a meat offering, I will not accept them, nor will I look down on the thanksgiving sacrifice of your fat calves. Remove from Me the noise of your songs, for I will not hear the sound of your harp. Let judgment flow like water, and truth like a mighty stream! Have you offered Me sacrifices and food offerings in the wilderness for forty years, the house of Israel? You carried the tabernacle of Molochov and the star of your god Remphan, images you made for yourself. Therefore I will transfer you beyond Damascus, says the Lord; The God of hosts is His name! (18:23)

So, the prophet Amos accuses the Jews that their paganism and apostasy from the faith did not begin today, but long ago. He is the first to say that the Lord does not need offerings and burnt offerings if they are not connected with truth, with mercy and with piety, true, spiritual, inner. True, Isaiah will say much more strongly about this, but that will come later.

So, the day of the Lord for Israel, according to Amos, is near. And this day seemed quite concrete. This will be a resettlement beyond Damascus. This will be an eviction from the lands where the northern Israelites lived.

In the ninth chapter, it is said that Amos sees the Lord standing over the altar and saying: “Strike the lintel above the gate so that the jambs shake, and bring them down on the heads of all of them; none of them who wants to be saved will be saved.” (20:08)

That is, we are talking in this case not about the Jerusalem temple. Maybe about Bethel. The Lord destroys his own altar. He does not need such an altar. This is the last warning from Amos.

If the altar disappears, the meaning of life disappears. Amos believes that through the Messiah in the last days, somehow the kingdom of Israel, the kingdom of David, will be restored. “In that day I will restore the fallen tabernacle of David, I will repair the cracks in it and restore what was broken, and I will build it up, as in the days of old, so that they may possess the remnant of Edom and all the nations among whom My name will be proclaimed, says the Lord who does all these things” . As you can see, the main pathos of the prophet Amos was a discussion about the wrath of God over sinners who do not want to heed the call to repentance.

One way or another, every prophet calls to repentance. The prophet Hosea does this too, but he does it differently. As if he opens another side of God's action in the world. He speaks not so much of anger as of the mercy of God. The prophet Hosea is a prophet of mercy. He will say so in the sixth chapter: “Therefore I smote through the prophets, and smote them with the words of my mouth, and my judgment is like the light that ascends. For I desire mercy, and not sacrifice, and the knowledge of God more than burnt offerings.” Hosea says that even if the Lord is very hard on his people and if He beats them with the mouth of His prophets, He does it not in order to enjoy revenge, but in order to remind them of mercy. Hosea argues that mercy speaks more about God than anger.

Anger is the wrong word for God. And mercy in relation to Him, according to the prophet Hosea, the word is more appropriate. It is akin to theology, that is, the knowledge of God. The one who truly knows God, and does not just bring burnt offerings and sacrifices to him, knows that the Lord is not so much angry as merciful. And the Lord will repeat this phrase in the Gospel: “I want mercy, not sacrifice.” Although at the same time he believes that "your piety is like the morning mist and like the dew that soon disappears."

The prophet Hosea was a very interesting man. He lived during the time of the wicked king Hosea. By the will of God, he took as his wife a well-known harlot in those places. And he had children from her. He named his son Israel, which meant “I will seek blood,” in the sense that the Lord of Israel will exact from the house of Israel. Or another interpretation of the name: "I will put an end to the kingdom of the house of Israel." This is a significant symbolic image. Hosea not only married a harlot, but also called the children born in this strange marriage by the names that God addresses to his people. (24:36)

And he did this for two purposes. Marriage with a harlot symbolized two ideas: the first is revealed in the second chapter: “Speak to your brothers,” the Lord addresses the Israelites through Hosea, “My people,” and to your sisters: “Pardoned.” Sue your mother, sue; for she is not my wife, and I am not her husband; let her remove fornication from her face and adultery from her breasts, lest I strip her naked and expose her as on the day she was born, make her a wilderness, turn her into a dry land and kill her with thirst. And I will not have mercy on her children, because they are children of fornication. For their mother committed fornication, and she that conceived them shamed herself; for she said, “I will go after my lovers, who give me bread and water, wool and flax, oil and drink.” Therefore, behold, I will block her way with thorns, and I will encircle her with a hedge, and she will not find her paths, and she will pursue her lovers, but will not overtake them; and he will seek them, but he will not find them, and will say, “I will go and return to my first husband; for it was better for me then than now.” And she did not know that I, I gave her bread and wine and oil, and multiplied her silver and gold, from which they made the image of Baal.

The following thought is interesting here: any person on earth who sins, rejects God, acts or thinks not according to the will of God, he still eats, breathes what the Lord gives. He lives in the world that God created for him and uses what the Lord has given him, but does not understand this. “Therefore I will take back My bread in its time, and My wine in its season, and I will take away My wool and My flax, with which her nakedness is covered. And now I will reveal her shame before the eyes of her lovers, and no one will pluck her out of My hand. And I will put an end to all her joy, her feasts, and her new moons, and her Sabbaths, and all her celebrations. And I will lay waste her vines and her fig trees, of which she says: “These are my gifts, which my lovers gave me”; and I will make them into wood, and the beasts of the field will eat them. (27:28) And I will punish her for the days of serving the Baals, when she censed them and, adorning herself with earrings and necklaces, went after her lovers, but forgot Me, says the Lord.

Despite the general prophetic line, Hosea's even the denunciation and expression of the wrath of the Lord are not at all the same as those of Amos. These are not threats, but a call to repentance. Let's see what Hosea gives us. We talked to you about pagan religious systems with marriages of gods. They said that in Israel there was a unique situation, because here the marriage was vertical. God was engaged to Israel and no one else. There is no one in heaven but God. And therefore, on earth for God at this moment there is no one but the Israelites. This is the only line of marriage: the soul of Israel marries God. But this marriage itself was presented in different ways.

Imagine that the Lord says: when you were young and beautiful, I saw you, loved you for your beauty, for your purity and virginity, and took you to Myself. But the time has come, and you betrayed your love, and went from me to follow your lovers. Lovers are the gods of other religions. But in the spiritual sense, we can understand other worldview concepts. For example, there is a god of the womb, a god of gold, and so on. That is, you, Israel, went after your lovers.

This option is typical for the prophet Jeremiah: when I was walking (the Lord always goes by. The word “Easter” means “passing by”), when I passed you, you were lying on the road, tormented, wounded. (depicted as if a raped girl. Or a raped harlot). You lay wounded, tormented, unhappy, miserable. And I saw you like this, Israel, wounded, unhappy, I took you to my house and healed and nourished you, and delivered you from this prodigal life and introduced you into marriage. But you forgot all that and went back to your adultery again.

Thus, two variants of the marriage line are depicted in the prophecies - this is either a bride, who later entered fornication, or a harlot, who after a while returned to her occupation. Spiritual fornication is seen as the root cause of the sinful state. That is, the prophet Hosea, like some others, is not so much interested in specific national sins as in this question. This is the root of all troubles. Everything else can be fixed. But this must be healed before everything else, because spiritual fornication is a serious spiritual danger. (31:49)

So Hosea brings a harlot into his house for two purposes. Firstly, in order to convict Israel through the image of their children (in this case, it turns out that the Israelites are called children of fornication or children of marriage who have become lost). Fornication and wandering means delusion. The Israelites are children of fornication. Secondly, to show that a harlot can become a godly woman in marriage. If it's possible with a harlot, then it's possible with Israel. Israel can return to God. (32:58) Hosea subordinates his personal life to the service of the Lord.

Both Hosea and Amos from different sides show us the Old Testament idea of ​​God in a prophetic reflection. The prophet Amos, knowing that the majority would not believe in his prophecy, nevertheless turned out to be a seer of the future. He predicted the future assimilation of the northern kingdom.

Why do we speak of Jerusalem as of the whole world? We say this because the Lord is present there. There was a temple where the Lord dwelt, containing more than the world. Here is the center of the world. In principle, in a small area of ​​Israel - the quintessence of the whole world.

The prophet, from the moment he recognized himself as a prophet, obeyed the voice of God, but marrying a harlot in pre-Christian times was a sign of shame. The common man could not afford it. And the prophet was forgiven. Everyone looked at him differently. For the prophet, this was a very serious sign.

For Christ's sake, the holy fools are, in a certain sense, the successors of the prophet. In our time, such a pattern of prophetic action would not have such an effect and would not attract such attention to itself. This is how sectarians operate in our time. Or false prophets. Now we need more civilized forms of prophecy. Perhaps because we have become more civilized, but perhaps also because, despite the crisis, now is not an apocalyptic time. The time on the eve of the twentieth century was much more apocalyptic than it is now.

I am not setting you up to wait for the end. A premonition of the end could sooner arise before the collapse of the Soviet Union. On the contrary, we need to ask the Lord for strength for creation. Ecclesiastes says: there is a time to scatter stones, there is a time to gather. There will come a time to scatter. As long as you collect. (38:50) Of course, at any moment, everything can break for any person and for the people as a whole. But that doesn't mean you have to wait for it to happen. The fact is that the end of earthly history, the coming of the Kingdom of God in the historical perspective, is an event, first tragic, and then joyful.

That is, the cross and resurrection, of course, is both martyrdom and then victory with the help of God. But the fact is that this is not some one-day act, it is a gradual process. And we do not know what phases this process has. We know that the Kingdom of God, with our efforts, can enter into us already now, already in this life.

In a sense, the second coming comes for a person already in his earthly life. He does not have to wait for the second coming. But one should not confuse one's personal, the path of deification of a person with general historical processes, in which we are just a small part. We cannot influence history, but we need to learn how to cope with ourselves, and then create something around ourselves. Knowing that the efficiency of this, if there is three percent, is good. And that, maybe, and that will not be, and will be only for itself. (40:30)

Today, the words of the prophets about the remnant of Israel should be remembered more often. If a remnant lives, waves of faith and hope can radiate from it to other people. And thanks to this, they can, without experiencing faith, like other believers, act positively in their lives.

Let's turn to statistics. How many baptized people do we have in the country? Let ninety percent. Although, rather, about seventy. Because we have a lot of Muslims. In general, seventy percent of baptized people. How many of these baptized people are believers? I'm not talking about those who visit the temple. I say, how many of them are believers? Let it be forty percent. Forty percent believers. How many of these believers go to the temple? Just goes to the temple. For example, at Easter, Epiphany or Christmas. Let's say thirty percent. And the last question that for an Orthodox person characterizes his churchness: how many of these people regularly (at least once a month or two) take communion? (42:55) I read that the statistics are very disappointing - three percent somewhere. And even one percent. But this is no reason to be discouraged.

This is a common occurrence. Because the Lord in the Gospel says: when I come, will I find at least one faithful one? Let one percent take communion, let ten percent go to church, let thirty percent be believers, let seventy percent be baptized. But if there is sincerity everywhere, the number of people who act positively in this world will gradually increase. After all, the fact is that communion, baptism, going to church makes our life positive not from these walks, but from the gift of God. As a person tries to do something with his weak strength, the grace of God is given to him beyond measure, and it gradually stabilizes his life. (44:26)

By the way, there were a number of private theological opinions that our world would enter the Kingdom of God without catastrophe and without the Antichrist. Perhaps this process will take place without a global disaster and the last retreat. Perhaps, gradually, people will understand that it is better for them to build their lives the way the Lord wants them to. And for this He will grant them the Kingdom of God. However, the apostles (both Paul and John) in the Apocalypse speak precisely of the dramatic course of history. And it would be strange for us to think that this will not happen. After all, this has already happened many times in history, and we are not immune from the fact that everything can be repeated at a new level in the new century.

But I think it's something else. It seems to me that, starting from the fall, man each time in the most important periods of his history chose the worst, dramatic way of behavior. In paradise, Adam could eat the fruit, but he could later repent. And then his falling away would be partial. But he went all the way. To the complete rejection of God. Christ could be hated, driven away, but they could not be killed. By the way, Isaac the Syrian writes that the act of the incarnation of God and His coming to us is not directly related to our fall into sin. He believes that God would have incarnated anyway and come to man. (47:08) Because the incarnation of God is an act of God's love. Another thing is that, having come to a person, He was crucified for him. That is, what does Saint Isaac want to emphasize? That God comes to man not out of necessity, not because of our sins. God still goes to man. And because a person behaves this way, the coming of the Lord turns not into a holiday, but into a crucifixion. It did not begin two thousand years ago, but even in paradise, more precisely, at the loss of paradise. There was a crucifixion, and then the Resurrection. I think that every true Christian, and perhaps all of humanity in general, to some extent necessarily goes through the crucifixion in order to receive the resurrection. Although this crucifix does not, perhaps, that terrible hopelessness of suffering that Christ had when He went through it voluntarily. (48:25).

When we read that the saints experienced something similar to the torments of Christ, we can assume that they experienced the same in essence, but to a lesser extent. Saints could suffer voluntarily, out of love for Christ. But this is not mandatory for us. John Chrysostom on Easter just says: "Death! where is your sting? Hell! where is your victory?" Hell and death have already been conquered. In some deep sense, Christ has already done everything. He has already paved the way to Heaven. In order to partake of Christ, each person has to go through his own measure of the cross and his own measure of the resurrection. For everyone, this path is built in accordance with their individuality, with their relationship with God.

In general, it seems to me that the whole of human history cannot pass by Christ. We would like everything to end just fine, but these are our dreams. How I wish there were no, say, wars. But we live in a world where blood is shed every minute and there is a war inside a person.

A typical example: Leo Tolstoy said that the era of the spirit, the era of freedom, is coming. In this age everyone will be happy. There will be no more violence, there will be peace. And the result was the opposite. By the way, Scripture says that troubles will be greatest when they talk about peace and security. The devil laughs at our dreams of being okay. Berdyaev, criticizing the materialists, also says that people pretend that there is no death.

If we sum up the patristic experience on how to live, we can say that one must live as if every next moment is the last. We must live as the ancients said: remember death, remember that every minute there may be an end. But this should not cause hysteria. People should feel that everything is in the hands of God, and you yourself are in the hands of God. This is on the one hand. But on the other hand, the Lord gives you strength and blessing to create. However, one must act and create not as if everything will collapse tomorrow. Not hastily and rashly, but as if you had thousands of years ahead of you.

Answers on questions

- In the book "Interpretation of the Four Gospels" edited by M. Barsov, a commentary is given, where there is a selection of sayings of the holy fathers. There is also a selection of statements by local priests who answer certain questions in Christian magazines. Barsov is good because he follows the gospel, he has agreed on the gospel story. Where it does not agree, there are attempts to harmonize it. Well, for example, where is Thursday, where is Friday, where are two witnesses, where is one.

Saint John Chrysostom interpreted the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of John and a number of epistles from the apostles.

For teaching, the most suitable is the compact interpretation of the blessed Theophylact of Bulgaria on the entire Four Gospels. He took both books of the interpretations of John Chrysostom on the Gospels of John and Matthew, added more interpretations on the Gospels of Luke and Mark, all this was largely reduced and published.

And with regard to the interpretation of the Epistle of the Apostle Paul, Theophan the Recluse is especially interesting.

There is a curious interpretation of the New Testament by the English theologian W. Barclay. This is a multi-volume book with interpretations of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke. The interpretation is interesting not so much from a spiritual point of view, but from a philological point of view. Every word is meticulously understood. What did this mean in Greek, what meanings and shades of meanings did this word have, what shades can be applied here? Very useful work. He has a good interpretation of the Apocalypse. (55:42)

There is a book by Galbiati E. Piazza “Difficult Pages of the Bible. Old Testament". There is no systematic interpretation. Some points are analyzed, interesting hypotheses are expressed. For example, about what concerns the picture of the creation of the world. If you have noticed, the very description of this process over the course of six days is not described in the way it appears in various hypotheses. A completely original hypothesis is put forward that this is due to the peculiarities of the ancient methods of the Palestinian, Sumerian and other sacred books. The creation of the world is breaking into eight fragments, six paintings are divided into eight. Parallel places are put, as if this writer is talking about the same thing in principle, only the first time he speaks briefly, and the second time he reveals the meaning of this. Galbiati E. Piazza ho chet to say that all these days are one process. This author certainly has interesting hypotheses. (57:51) At the same time, a purely Catholic doctrine can be traced in the book. The author says that the purpose of man's salvation is the return of Adam to the paradise from which he was expelled. This is a typical Catholic doctrine that equates the Kingdom of Heaven with the primordial paradise - when a person returns to paradise, the Lord will return supernatural grace to him. This is all repeated in the Catholic work.

- As far as I understood, the main principle that Bishop Cassian professed was not to violate more ancient lists of sources. Let me give you an example - the famous words from the Gospel. They are repeated. "Your father, who sees in secret, will reward you openly." We read it in the synodal translation. And he says no, it wasn't like that in the beginning. "And the Father, who sees in secret, will reward you." All. The word "explicitly" is not added. It seems to me that in a spiritual sense it is more powerful, because some are somewhat confused when reading this passage by the word "obviously." Why is that obvious? Who said obviously? This is the Old Testament. Maybe explicitly, externally, or maybe internally. (1:01:17)

One has to be very careful with biblical criticism. It concerns not only the Old Testament, but also the New Testament. We must be very careful about this.

In all studies there is one serious danger, it is described in some ancient hagiography. Once there lived a certain ascetic who did not want to listen to the abbot. He said: they say, what are the words of the abbot of our monastery to me? He doesn't tell me. Now, if Basil the Great or John Chrysostom had said these words, it would be another matter. After a while, he began to say: what are they to me, if only the Apostle Paul would say. And then he went further: what is the apostle Paul? Finally came to the rejection of Christ. So here. In critical analysis, you always need to know the measure. Sometimes there is a temptation to subsume one or another gospel law under one's hypothesis and present it as the truth. But it's really just a hypothesis. (1:04:46)

All of our scientific methods are pretty much lame. A simple example is the Shroud of Turin. Its age was to be determined by radiocarbon dating. And initially, scientists who were skeptical (this was consecrated in Soviet literature in the late 70s and early 80s) came to the conclusion that, according to the analysis, the age of the Shroud is the 12th century after the birth of Christ. After a while, publications appeared in which scientists began to talk about this method, and it turned out that due to inaccuracy in a fraction of a micron, one can make a mistake for several centuries at the output of the formula. There were believers who said that the Resurrection of Christ is a supernatural act, and not an internal historical fact. Resurrection is still a miracle. The miracle that really happened and could be accompanied by such a physical effect that the radiocarbon analysis formula would turn into nothing. It may not even apply to this case. (1:06:30)

And indeed, inexplicable phenomena could occur there. We can perceive it in a spiritual sense, but we can also perceive it in a physical sense. Why did the Lord say to Mary: “Do not touch Me, for I have not yet ascended to My Father”, but, before entering the Father, said to Thomas: “... touch my side with your hand”? Some theologians do not rule out that the change in the resurrected body of Jesus could have occurred gradually, and often associate this with radiation.

By the way, there is a stable Western hypothesis that the creation of man (and this does not cancel the Divine act) was accompanied to a large extent by radiation phenomena. In particular, this is the interpretation of the fiery sword that the cherub had, which forbade returning back to paradise. It is interesting that on some old icons this fiery sword is depicted precisely as a sheaf of fire emanating from the handle. Something fiery and scary. Maybe it's just an image, or maybe it really was accompanied by some physical phenomena.

Fortunately, in the Book of Jeremiah we find more events that can be more accurately dated, allowing us to establish the chronology of Jeremiah's prophecies. Due to this chronology, I have divided the book into four parts. I hope this will help the reader to distinguish the early prophecies from the later ones, even though no such order is found in the book itself.

To help readers chronologically arrange the three books of the Bible I am considering, I offer a table, as well as a geographical map with the location of large and small kingdoms encountered in the prophecies of the nations.

It is with great joy that I begin my analysis of the books of the major and minor prophets. Together with Adrian Ferbray, we give lectures based on the materials of this book in Rotterdam and Zwolle. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Ferbray for his enthusiastic collaboration and for his help in proofreading the books before publication. The corrections he suggested only improved the book. In addition, I am grateful to many other readers who always keep me in good shape with their critical remarks. Such analysis and criticism only strengthens in me the desire to finish the series “Roads of the Old Testament”. Being in old age, I constantly repeat the words with which the apostle James instructs us: “If the Lord pleases, we will do both” (James 4:15).

Ezekiel and Daniel were captured by Babylon and were in exile. They were not only contemporaries, but also peers. However, they probably never met each other in exile. Each of them had their own mission. Daniel reached great heights in the political sphere. Ezekiel was called to proclaim to his compatriots, who came with him to Babylon, the words of God about Jerusalem, about themselves and about the peoples. However, Ezekiel never had to deal with those in power in Babylon. Daniel addressed such rulers as Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar.

In his visions, he saw the misfortunes that await the people of Israel at the hands of foreign authorities in Israel's land. Both authors were united in their love for the holy city and lived with open windows in the direction of the temple, which was then already in desolation. But they saw more than just troubles and misfortunes. They expected the world coming of God's kingdom and predicted the restoration of Israel (Ezekiel) and even the resurrection from the dead (Daniel) after all the sorrows and troubles of God's people would come to an end.

This book in the Roads of the Old Testament series is much more extensive than the previous books. The book of Daniel raises many questions, and unfortunately I must admit that I did not always find answers to them. Discussing passage by passage of the Book of Daniel will help us get closer to the text itself.

Already in the book of Ecclesiasticus the twelve Minor Prophets were combined (49:12). Apparently, Josephus also considered them together (Against Apion I.8.3). In the treatise Baba Bathra 15a says that the men of the Great Synagogue wrote the book of the Twelve; the early Church Fathers also spoke of them as "the Twelve," calling their work "the book of the Twelve Prophets." The Septuagint manuscripts have a different order of the books, at least the first six: Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, and Jonah. Probably, the book of the prophet Hosea was put in the first place as the largest, but it is rather difficult to explain the principle of following the rest of the books. In addition, in some manuscripts (A and B), the Twelve are placed before the Major Prophets.

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET HOSIA

NAME

The book is named after the prophet hoshea. In the Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate, this name sounds like Osee.

Hosea was the son of Beeriah and prophesied in the kingdom of Israel. His activities coincided with the life of the prophet Isaiah. He is the author of the entire book that bears his name.

According to some researchers, there are parts in this book that supposedly do not belong to him. Woltz and Marty, for example, believe that he could not have written blessing or salvation prophecies (such as 11:8-11 or 14:2-9). Other passages where Hosea's authorship is also disputed are those where there is any mention of the Southern Kingdom. From the point of view of Marty, Nowak, and others, such passages (with a few exceptions) are later inserts. These now obsolete views are well stated in Harper's commentary.

This trend now appears to be changing. Eisfeldt, for example, emphasizes that even in those passages that should certainly be recognized as authentic (chapters 1 - 3), there are references to salvation after punishment, and, furthermore, referring to 5:8 - 6:6, he shows that there are passages that actually belong to Hosea, despite the fact that they mention the kingdom of Judah. He considers the following passages to be the main glosses: 4:3, 9; 7:10; 14:10, and some parts of chapter 12. As for Bentzen, on this issue he generally shares the position of Eisfeldt.

We believe that there are no sufficient grounds to deny the authorship of Hosea, speaking about any part of the book. It is only natural that he refers to the kingdom of Judah, since (8:4) without any qualifications he considers the northern kingdom illegitimate. Given this view (cf. also 3:5), one can understand why he dates the time of his prophecy to the years of the southern kings.

TARGET

In Hosea's ministry to the ten apostate northern tribes, the prophet proclaims God's grace and mercy. It was to them, who fully deserved death, that he was sent. Its main purpose is to show that God loves this sinful and rebellious people. Using the image of an unfaithful wife, he speaks of him as spiritually unfaithful and implores him to repent and leave his wicked ways. The time of cleansing will come, when Israel will find itself in unusual conditions for many days, but then, after the captivity, mercy will be shown again.

Apparently, the call of Hosea to the prophetic ministry took place at the end of the reign of Jeroboam II. He probably witnessed the last days of the reign of this monarch, an eyewitness to the decline and collapse of Israel, as well as captivity.

ANALYSIS

A. Hosea 1:1-3:5. Relationship between God and people.

Upon embarking on the study of Hosea's prophecy, the reader is almost immediately confronted with an extremely difficult problem. The prophet begins his message by saying that the Lord addressed him with the following command: "Go, take for yourself a wife, a harlot, and children of fornication; for this land is violently fornicating, having departed from the Lord." At first glance, it might seem that the Lord is commanding Hosea to do something reprehensible. In response to God's command, Hosea says that he took Gomer as his wife and that she bore him several children. Each child received a symbolic name and became, as it were, the focus of prophetic instruction. For example, one of them was called Loammi (that is, "not my people"), and this name symbolically expressed God's message that He refuses to recognize Israel as His people.

Throughout the first three chapters, there is a quiet sorrow in the prophecy, which has led Christian commentators to look for the cause of the sorrow and the meaning of the prophecy. According to some dedicated scholars, everything that is said here should be taken literally. Thus, it turns out that Hosea really married a harlot and she bore him children who bore a terrible name - children of fornication. As soon as one of them was born, Hosea took the opportunity to address the people with the message that the Lord had given him. When, for example, a daughter was born, he named her Loruhama (i.e., "Unmerciful") and, using the fact of her birth, announced to Israel: "I (the Lord) will no longer have mercy on the houses of Israel to forgive them" (1:6) .

Much can be said in defense of the literal interpretation. First of all, it is impossible not to notice that the prophecy is written in simple, sincere language, and at first glance it seems that everything was so, and all this must be taken literally. One can understand many Christian interpreters who believe that a literal interpretation is quite appropriate in this case.

However, when you begin to think about this passage, there are such insurmountable and persistent questions that it is simply impossible to ignore them. First, if Hosea had actually married a prostitute, wouldn't his entire ministry have lost its power? Let's be clearer: if today it suddenly turns out that a certain preacher is seen in connection with an unworthy woman, will we not look at him with suspicion? Shall we not begin to doubt the sincerity of his preaching? This is true of Hosea as well. If he really married such a woman, would they listen to him? This argument has its own force, and it is difficult to close one's eyes to it. In addition, it can be assumed that time was an obstacle to the prophet, nullifying the effectiveness of his message. Many months passed before the birth of the first child, and when he was finally born, the prophet probably proclaimed his message. Is there any connection with the words he spoke when he got married? Apparently, quite a lot of time passed, and the people simply forgot what Hosea announced to them when he took a harlot as his wife. Several months passed before the birth of the second child again, and so on. We have given only two significant considerations that have led many pious scholars to doubt the literal understanding of this story.

Along with many others, I am increasingly inclined to believe that the whole episode has a symbolic meaning. the whole message was revealed to the prophet, and he told his revelation to the people. If this is so, we immediately feel the full force and effect of the message. From her emanates pressure and sincerity, she speaks of God's love for a sinful unfaithful people and reaches the top in announcing that the number of the sons of Israel will become like the sand of the sea.

Of course, the symbolic interpretation has its problems, but still it seems to be correct. In this connection, it can be noted that in chapter 3 the Lord again commands Hosea to marry, and this time it is not clear whether it is about Gomer or not. There are serious reasons to believe that it was Gomer, however, in any case, the whole episode is aimed at showing the Lord's tender love for His lost people.

Wellhausen adopted a point of view that can be called a semi-literal interpretation. He believed that Hosea only learned the true character of his wife after his children were born. Subsequently, this view has undergone some changes, but it lacks consistency and cannot be unconditionally extended to the third chapter.

b. 4:1 - 14:10. Prophet's speeches

According to Driver, this section specifically reveals Hosea as a prophet of "the decline and destruction of the northern kingdom." Chapters 4-8 emphasize that this sinful kingdom bears guilt; further (9 - 11:11) speaks of the punishment that will fall on Israel, and then (11:12 - 14:10), despite the fact that this thought remains relevant, the prophet announces the future blessing that awaits the repentant people. The historical background of these prophecies is the threat looming over Israel from Assyria. Hosea appears as an emotional person, and sometimes his angry attitude towards sin is expressed in harsh and somewhat violent language. On the other hand, when the prophet speaks to the people about the exalted love of the Lord, the language of the narration is filled with beautiful images.

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET JOEL

NAME

ANALYSIS

a.1:1-2:27. Locust punishment.

1. 1:1. Inscription. Although the inscription says nothing about this, there is more or less consensus that Joel performed his ministry in Judea.

2. 1:2-20. the book begins with a devastating locust invasion (2-4), followed by a call to repentance. the prophet calls for a fast and announcing a solemn assembly in the house of the Lord (5-14); with the exclamation "Oh, what a day," he announces the coming of the day of the Lord, the day of calamity and punishment.

3. 2:1-17. the prophet commands that the trumpet be blown, for the day of the Lord is drawing near. This is the day of darkness when the enemy will enter the city. In verses 3-10, Joel describes this invasion and then announces that the Lord will meet the invader with His army (verse 11); so the people need to repent, fast, and turn to the Lord (verses 12-17). To this repentance the Lord will answer with His great and mighty deliverance.

b. 2:28 - 3:21. God bless and punish.

In the original, chapter 2 ends with verse 27. Assuming that verses 28-37 belong to chapter 3, and what in the English translation is considered chapter 3, in Hebrew it turns out to be 4. Thus, in English 2:28-32 corresponds to Hebrew 3:1-5, and 3:1 -21 - Hebrew 4:1-21 (as in the Russian Synodal translation - approx. translation.)

1. 2:28-32. In this section, the prophet announces the coming of the messianic age, when God's Spirit will be poured out on all flesh and the gospel will be proclaimed to all. "Whoever calls on the name of the Lord will be saved." The fulfillment of this grace-filled prophecy took place during the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:17).

2. 3:1-21. In this chapter, using metaphorical language, the prophet continues to describe the blessed time that will come for God's people. For Judah and Jerusalem, the captivity will end, but in the valley of Jehoshaphat, judgment will be made on all nations (verses 1-8). These nations will be proclaimed the time of war and judgment (verses 9-16), but God's people will receive an eternal blessing, "Judah will live forever, and Jerusalem for generations of generations" (verses 17-21).

The main problem is to figure out if the first two chapters are prophecy or just a description of events that have already happened. Recently, Merckx and Eisfeldt have clearly shown that these chapters contain prophetic material pointing to the future. However, it seems to us that it is best to consider them as prophecies from beginning to end, and then they fit perfectly with the second half of the book. The author of the whole book was Joel himself, and in all probability his ministry took place in the period before the captivity, perhaps in the reign of Joash. In support of this point of view, it can be said that the enemies of Judah, which the prophet mentions, are not the Syrians, Assyrians and Babylonians, who were enemies of the Kingdom of Judah during the captivity, but the Philistines, Phoenicians (3:4), Egyptians and Edomites (3 :19). During the reign of Josiah, Syria and Assyria did not yet threaten Judah, but Egypt, which invaded it during the reign of Rehoboam, apparently remained an enemy. In addition, not long before (during the reign of Jehoram) the Edomites and Philistines were at war with Judah (cf. 2 Sam. 8:20-22; 2 Chr. 21:16-17).

It should also be noted that the book of the prophet Joel stands between the books of the prophet Hosea and the prophet Amos, and this probably indicates that the Jewish tradition considered it ancient. Moreover, it should be noted that her artistic style is quite different from the style of the prophecies of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi, which were proclaimed after the captivity. Let us also note that nothing is mentioned about the king, although it is said about the elders and priests. This is understandable when it comes to the reign of Jehoash, since he was only seven years old when he ascended the throne (2 Kings 11:21). As for the prophet Amos, he was probably familiar with the prophecies of Joel (cf. 3:16 with Amos 1:2 and 3:18 with Amos 9:13).

According to Osterley and Robinson, the narrative material of the prophecy belongs to the period after the exile, primarily because it does not mention the Northern Kingdom and the only sanctuary is considered to be the sanctuary in Jerusalem, nothing is said about the heights, about the king, and, in addition, there are three mentions of a grain offering and a drink offering (1:9, 13; 2:14), which, according to the authors mentioned, is a decisive sign, since, as they believe, the "tamid" or "daily" offering indicates the period after the captivity. In addition, it is believed that the style itself also speaks of this. All these considerations, as well as some other less significant arguments, convinced Osterley and Robinson that the narrative material of the book of Joel was written after the captivity.

We have already considered some of these arguments, however, in addition to what has been said, it is worth noting that the prophet simply did not have any special reason to mention the Northern Kingdom and that the name "Israel" applies equally to both the Northern Kingdom and to the South. No mention of heights ( bamoth) cannot serve as a basis for dating, since there seems to have been no particular reason to speak of them. Even Osterley and Robinson themselves admit that the heights may not have been mentioned long before the prophet Amos. Therefore, no conclusions can be drawn from this. The mention of a grain offering and a drink offering cannot be used as a basis for dating either, unless one accepts the date that negative critics set for the book of Exodus and the book of Numbers, where the drink offering is first mentioned (cf. Ex. 29:38-42; Num. 28:3-8).

As for the apocalyptic sections of the book, according to Osterley and Robinson, they were written around 200 BC. e. Thus, both researchers (and Doom along with them) believe that the book has two authors. The point of view is expressed that its apocalyptic context is similar to the context of the apocalypse written two centuries before the coming of Christ, and that the reference to the "sons of the Hellenes" (3:6) refers to the Seleucids. However, this is just a guess. It is possible that already during the reign of Joash, Jewish captives were sold to the Greeks. In addition, it should be noted that the apocalyptic sections of the book of the prophet Joel have some similarities with the corresponding sections of Isaiah. Apocalyptic is not necessarily the basis for a more complete dating.

Pfeiffer believes that this book is a single whole, that it belongs to the pen of one author and, in all likelihood, was written around 350 BC. e. Be that as it may, in our opinion, dating the book to the period before the captivity is preferable.

TARGET

Joel seeks to show the people that they need to humble themselves and repent, and that the coming judgment is inevitable. At the same time, those who have remained faithful to God's promises, he seeks to encourage, reminding them of the coming salvation and the death of their adversaries and God's enemies.

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET AMOS

NAME

The author of the entire book is Amos himself. He was from Tekoya (a town about five miles southeast of Bethlehem), where he was a shepherd ( nogedim, see 1:1) and gathered sycamores (7:14). The Lord called him to the office of a prophet while he was busy with his usual business (7:14-15). He describes his calling as follows: "But the Lord took me from the sheep, and the Lord said to me, 'Go, prophesy unto my people Israel' (7:15). From the book we learn what the people to whom he preached were. They were rich people, confident in themselves and in their well-being.The rich oppressed the poor, and it was sad to see that there was no truth in the courts.With true courage, Amos denounced these vices and called the people to turn to the Lord.

It is generally accepted that the book was written by the prophet himself, but some critics claim that it contains notes and additions made by the hand of later editors and writers. In 1935 R.E. Wolf tried to find these inserts. Pfeiffer believes that the commentators were Jews from Jerusalem who worked between 500 and 300 BC. e. He states that there are many footnotes in the text and that the most famous are the doxologies and the messianic promise of 9:9-15.

Eisfeldt also believes that there are many additions in the text and, without taking into account individual verses and phrases, he identifies three main types of inserts: 1:9, 10; 1:11, 12; 2:4, 5 (inserts in diatribes of Amos), 4:13; 5:8, 9; 9:5, 6 (doxology) and 9:11-15 (messianic prophecy).

However, it is generally accepted that these additions were made for theological reasons and, moreover, it should be noted that they are considered as such on the basis of a special theory about the religious development of Israel. There are no objective data that would suggest that the book contains passages that do not belong to the pen of the one whose name it bears.

TARGET

The prophecies of Amos are an example of God's favor to an unworthy people. The Israelites of the northern kingdom did not recognize the covenant made by David and therefore forfeited all right to the Lord's promises. At the same time they were in the self-satisfied confidence that, since they were God's chosen people, no calamity would befall them. They worshiped the Lord with their lips, but their hearts were far from Him. Their life was filled with selfishness, greed, immorality, they oppressed the poor without any hesitation. In this land there is no longer any truth, no justice. It was to such people that Amos came to warn them of impending doom. He does not directly name the invasion of the Assyrians, but it is clear that he prophesies about the coming captivity. Its purpose is to warn, but at the same time to announce deliverance through Christ.

It is sometimes heard that Amos's message is hopeless news of woe to come, and that therefore the blessing foretold in chapter 9 is not his pen. But to say this is to misunderstand the message of the prophet. In proclaiming a blessing, he speaks of God's faithfulness to His Covenant, the faithfulness that will find its real embodiment when He returns His people from captivity.

ANALYSIS

A. 1:1-2:16. The proclamation of God's judgments on the nations.

1. Inscription. Apparently, the name of the Jewish king Uzziah is mentioned primarily to show that Amos recognizes the legitimate heir to the throne only through the line of David (cf. Hosea 1:1). The earthquake occurred two years after Amos' prophecy (cf. Zech. 14:5), but before he wrote down his message.

2. 1:2. This verse sets the theme for the entire section. It is interesting that the Lord speaks from Jerusalem, since Zion was the legal sanctuary.

3. 1:3 - 3:3. Prophetic proclamation of judgments on the nations: Damascus (1:3-5), Philistines (1:6-8), Phenicia (Tyre) (1:9,10), Edom (1:11, 12), Ammon (1: 13-15), Moab (2:1-3).

Interestingly, the first three peoples were not blood relatives of Israel, unlike the last three. Step by step, Amos approaches the fate of Israel.

4. 2:4-16. The proclamation of the judgments of God's chosen people: Judah (2:4, 5) and Israel (2:6-16).

In order to make these prophecies look more convincing and powerful, Amos arranges the text accordingly. First comes the phrase: "For three crimes and for four I will not spare." Then characteristic transgressions are mentioned, and then judgment is proclaimed. Such a construction holds the reader's attention until, having approached Israel, the prophet, with all his passion, begins to announce the imminent captivity.

b. 3:1-6:14. Judgment on Israel.

1. 3:1-15. These verses speak of the enmity between God and His people.

3.5:1-27. The Lord mourns Israel like a fallen virgin.

All three addresses are preceded by the phrase "Hear this word." At 5:18 woe is announced, setting the stage for the continuation of the third address found in chapter 6 (6:1-14).

4. 6:1-14. These verses continue the third speech of the prophet, preceded by an exclamation of the coming woe.

With. 7:1 - 9:15. Five visions of the coming judgment.

1. 7:1-3. First vision of locusts.

2. 7:4-6. Second vision: fire devouring the great abyss.

3. 7:7-17. Third vision: vision of a plumb line. Added to this vision is the historical note that Amaziah commanded Amos to leave the land of Israel (verses 11-17).

4. 8:1-14. The fourth vision: "a basket of ripe fruits."

5. 9:1-10. Fifth vision: destruction of the sanctuary.

The first four visions are preceded by the words "such a vision the Lord revealed to me", and the fifth - by the words "I saw".

6. 9:11-15. The promise of a messianic blessing.

Verses 11-12 lay the foundation for the quotation that James gives in the book of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 15:16-18). Led by the Holy Spirit, James makes this passage (in the Septuagint translation) the basis of his final assessment of the Old Testament prophecy of the messianic age in this quotation. Without a doubt, he connects these words with the desire of God to call the pagans to Himself.

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET ABDIAH

NAME

The book that contains this little prophecy is named after its author - Obhadhyah, which in the Septuagint reads as Obdiou, and in the Vulgate as Abdias.

There are many different points of view regarding the authorship of the book. According to Osterley and Robinson, it is a collection of prophecies directed against Edom; date of writing and authorship unknown. In turn, Pfeiffer believes that the original prophecy against Edom comes down to two options (Obadiah 1-9 verses and Jer. 49:7-22). In all likelihood, verses 10-14, as well as the second half of verse 15, never existed separately from verses 1-9, and all of them (that is, 1-4 and the second half of 15), from Pfeiffer's point of view, were written around 460 g. .BC e. He dates the second part to an even later period. Rudolf divides the book into two prophecies: verses 1-14, 15b, and verses 16-18, both of which he credits to Obadiah. As for the final verses, according to Rudolf they too could have been written during the time of Obadiah.

Eisfeldt argues that verses 2-9 contain a real threat, not a mere description, and that 11-14, 15b form a real unity with the first ten verses, since 11-14, 15b provides the justification for the threat described in the previous verses. He dates the writing of this part to the period after 587 (the destruction of Jerusalem). As for the first half of verse 15, as well as verses 16-18, they have no connection with the previous ones, and Eisfeldt divides the entire remaining text into two sections: 15a together with verses 16-18 and verses 19-21. It is possible that both sayings are from Obadiah, but it is more likely that they were written later.

Objecting to all the above points of view, we would like to say that it would be best to consider the prophet Obadiah himself as the author of the entire book, recognizing that he lived before Jeremiah. There is no need to interpret verses 11-14 in the way Eisfeldt does, that is, as an indication of the destruction of Jerusalem. It is quite possible (as, for example, suggested by Raven and others) that they refer to events that took place during the reign of Jehoram, when the Philistines and Arabians invaded Judah (2 Chronicles 21:16-17, cf. also Amos 1:6) . We do not know how long Obadiah prophesied after this. The point of view is expressed (Davis, Raven) that his ministry was carried out during the reign of Ahaz, when the Edomites were especially hostile to Judah. Perhaps this was so, but it seems much more justified is another point of view, according to which Obadiah prophesied in Judah some time before the ministry of Jeremiah began. (A passage from the 49th chapter of this prophet (49:7-22) has similarities with the prophecy of Obadiah and probably depends to some extent on it.)

TARGET

the prophet seeks to show that for actions against Judah the Edomites will be punished, and the house of Judah itself will be glorified. The first 14 verses reflect the content of the headline (verse 1) and the general threat against Edom. Edom was deceived by his own pride, but the Lord will bring him down, striking fear into his brave ones. Edom did not behave like a brother, and the Lord points out what he should not have done. In verses 15-21, the coming of the Day of the Lord is announced, when Edom, like other nations, will be punished for their transgression. Nevertheless, salvation will take place in Zion, and the kingdom will belong to the Lord.

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET JONAH

NAME

Jonah was an Israelite, the son of Amathiah, a prophet from Gath-Hefer in Galilee. In addition to this book, the only mention of him is in 2 Kings (2 Kings 14:25), which tells that Jeroboam II, according to the word of the Lord, spoken through Jonah, restored the borders of Israel from the entrance to Emach to the sea in the wilderness. We do not know exactly when Jeroboam fulfilled what Jonah said, but at least we know the time of the ministry of this prophet, since Jeroboam, during whose reign Jonah performed his ministry, ruled from 783 to 743 BC. e. Although the book itself is not dated, it is possible that Jonah wrote it shortly after his return from Nineveh. In addition, there is every reason to assume that he visited this city shortly before the beginning of the reign of Tiglath-Pileser.

Eisfeldt believes that we cannot justifiably assert that Jonah, who is described in this prophecy, and Jonah, who is mentioned in 2 Kings, are one and the same person. From Eisfeldt's point of view, the book of the prophet Jonah contains two legends: one (chapters 1-3) tells of Jonah's opposition to divine command, and the other (chapter 4) tells how his dissatisfaction with God's mercy reached the point of absurdity. The first legend contains a mythological, fabulous ( marchenhaftes) a motif that is found in all world legends and which tells how a fish that swallowed a man regurgitated him back.

Eisfeldt believes that some unknown writer took this material and designed it into a book that has come down to us, although it is difficult to say how strong his influence is. At least one thing is clear: the widespread ideas that are played out in the book belong to this writer, and this, in turn, makes it possible to determine the time of his life. This was the period after the captivity (perhaps the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, since the book was probably a protest against their reforms); this argument is also confirmed by the fact that the Assyrian kingdom and its capital are perceived as something long gone ( dahin); it is believed that the presence of Arameisms also speaks in favor of such an argument (for example, beshellemi("for whom?" or "through whom?") (1:7) and qeri'ah("preach") (3:2). (We do not, however, have the book in the form in which it came out from under the pen of its writer: over time it has undergone certain changes and the most remarkable of these are the addition of a "song of thanksgiving" (2:3-10) and an insert the second verse as an introduction to this song.The rest of the book is a single whole, and attempts to identify various sources in it (such as those found by Hans Schmidt) should be considered unsatisfactory.

In its main provisions, Eisfeldt's point of view is defended by many researchers. Osterley and Robinson are primarily interested in the presence of Aramaicisms and the style of the narrative itself, since they believe that all this points to the period after the captivity. Pfeiffer claims that he was able to find historical inaccuracies in the name of the "king of Nineveh" (3:6), as well as in the description of this city as "a great city ... for three days' walk" (3:3), and furthermore states that it is physically impossible for a person to "spend three days in the belly of a whale."

In response, it can be noted that Christ, for example, believed in the historical authenticity of the described miracles (see Matt. 12:39-40; Luke 11:29-30) and believed that the mission of the prophet to the inhabitants of Nineveh really took place. Therefore, we cannot regard this book as a legend devoid of historical authenticity. We and those who do not believe in miracles and the divine nature of Christ have a different basis, since it is enough for a believer in Jesus to think that thanks to the miraculous power of God, the prophet was able to stay in the belly of a whale for three days.

As for the Aramaic expressions that occur in the book, they cannot serve as a criterion for determining the time of its writing, since they are contained in the Old Testament books of both early and late periods. Moreover, they are also present in the recently discovered texts of Ras Shamra (and these texts date from approximately 1400-1500 BC).

The expression "three days' walk" (3:3, 4) cannot be considered a historical inaccuracy. Perhaps this phrase refers to the area that the city occupied, but it is also possible that it simply emphasizes that it was not small. Verse 4 says that "Jonah began to walk about the city ( ba'ir This is not to say that he simply covered the distance that can be covered in a day's walk: it means that he simply moved around the early parts of the city preaching his message. It is also quite possible that the expression "three days' walk" refers not only to the square of the city itself, but also to the neighborhood that surrounded Nineveh.If this is so, then there is no contradiction in such a description.

In this sense, the phrase "king of Nineveh" is no exception. The writer simply refers to the ruler as such (e.g. "king of Damascus" (2 Chron. 24:23) or "king of Edom" (2 Kings 3:9, 12). Usually the Israelites referred to this ruler as the king of Assyria, and the turn used here is analogous to calling Ahab king of Samaria (1 Kings 21:1, cf. 20:43), and Benhadad king of Damascus (2 Chr. 24:23), while he was usually called king of Syria.

Moreover, chapter 3 (3:3) does not say that Nineveh existed in the distant past, but simply indicates how large this city was and what its condition was when Jonah came into it. Meller believes that there is a parallel passage in the Gospel of Luke (Luke 24:12). There is no doubt that the phrase "sixty stages from Jerusalem" ( English per.), simply indicates the location of Emmaus and does not suggest that this city existed long ago and that it no longer exists.

As for the generalizing ideas that are present in the book, they are quite consistent with the overarching premise that is felt throughout the Old Testament. This emphasis is quite early (see, for example, Gen. 9:27), and there is no reason to consider such statements as a characteristic feature of one period after the captivity.

TARGET

The main purpose of the book of the prophet Jonah is not in its missionary teaching, with its inherent motive of a universal scale, but in showing that, just as Jonah, thrown into the depths of the underworld, remained alive, so the Messiah, having died for the sins of others, will rise again . Jonah was an Israelite, a servant of God, and he had to endure such an experience for the sins of other nations (Nineveh). The Messiah is also an Israelite, also a faithful Servant of the Lord, and His death was caused by the sins of this world.

"For as Jonah was in the belly of the whale for three days and three nights, so the Son of Man will be in the heart of the earth for three days and three nights. The Ninevites will rise up for judgment with this generation and condemn it, for they repented from the preaching of Jonah; and, behold, here greater than Jonah" (Matthew 12:40, 41). Thus, Jonah's experience is primarily meant to point to the experience of the Other Who is "greater than Jonah".

In addition, everything that Jonah experienced was of great didactic value for his Israelite contemporaries. Jonah, an Israelite, is thrown into the depths of the sea, but is rescued from there to fulfill his mission. Thus, for their disobedience, the people of Israel will have to go through the waters of troubles and sorrows, but their remnant will come out of there in order to fulfill the mission entrusted to Israel in relation to the whole world.

In addition, the ministry of Jonah points to the evil and rebellious nature of the Israelites. Israel was given many prophets and still did not repent, however, when the people of Nineveh heard the prophetic words, they "put on sackcloth and sat on the ashes."

Finally, Jonah's mission is to make the Israelites understand that God's salvation is not limited to any one nation. Israel is a slave who needs to spread the knowledge of the Lord throughout the world.

UNITY OF THE BOOK

Having briefly summarized Eisfeld's point of view, we have seen that he attributes the so-called "song of thanksgiving" or psalm contained in chapter 2 to a source different from that which underlies the rest of the book. Thus, as far as its unity is concerned, the main question is what is the connection of this chant with the other three chapters.

Those who believe that this psalm is taken from another source put forward the following arguments. First, they say that 2:2 says that Jonah "prayed," but what follows is not a prayer, but a psalm of thanksgiving for salvation. In addition, the point of view is expressed that this psalm was sung before salvation was completed, for only in verse 11 it is said that "the whale cast Jonah on dry land." In addition to this, there is nothing in the chant itself that would indicate Jonah's experience. Wellhausen even thought that verse 6 mentioned seaweed and therefore Jonah could not be in the whale's belly, because (according to him) "algae does not grow in this belly." And, finally, the idea was expressed that without this chant, the text has a sequence, if immediately after 2 verses go to 11.

Objecting to the above arguments, first of all, it should be noted that if we remove verses 3-10, then the chiastic structure of the book will collapse. The book is clearly divided into two halves: 1-2 chapters and 3-4 chapters. It should be noted that 3:1-3a and 1:1-3a, with the exception of minor verbal differences, are quite consistent with each other. Moreover, 4:2 and 2:2 correspond to each other in saying that Jonah prayed ( wayyithpalle). In the first case, before us is a thanksgiving psalm, in the second, a complaint. Therefore, if we take away 2:3-10, the chiasmus of the book will simply collapse. Moreover, in our opinion, there is no contradiction between the statement that Jonah prayed and his thanksgiving song. Isn't thanksgiving the very essence of prayer? (cf., for example, Ps. 85, where in prayer ( tephillah) contains elements of thanksgiving).

However, Wellhausen and other scholars who object to the authenticity of the mentioned passage (2:3-10) do not understand the meaning of the psalm at all. Yes, algae do not grow in the belly of a whale, but before us is not a psalm of thanksgiving for salvation from this womb, but thanksgiving for the fact that Jonah did not drown. The figures of speech used in this psalm indicate precisely that he could drown, and not that he was in this womb. Moreover, there is not a single hint that would allow us to think that this psalm is talking about deliverance from the belly of a whale. Representatives of the negative critical school completely unreasonably endow this psalm with a meaning that was never even implied in it.

So, it should be considered that the song is in its true place. Jonah was thrown into the sea, into the womb of hell, into the depths, into the streams, into the waters, into the abyss; his head was entwined with sea grass, he descended to the base of the mountains, was blocked by the boundaries of the earth (what else can all this indicate if not the sea?) However, from all this horror, Jonah was saved by a whale prepared by the Lord (wayeman - must be taken into attention is the Lord's action before denying the possibility of a miracle). While in the belly of the whale, Jonah gave his thanks and then, when the time was right, the whale spewed him onto dry land.

There are many references in his chant to the psalms which, according to their name, are attributed to David, and also to those which were written in his time. Moeller offers the following comparison table:

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET MICAH

NAME

The book is named after the prophet Micah, whose fuller name is found in the book of Judges - Michayahu(Judges 17:1, 4). In the Septuagint it looks like Michaias, and in the Vulgate it looks like michaeas.

All prophecy contained in this book belongs to the prophet himself. He was from Morasfit, which, perhaps, can be identified with Moreshef-Geth of their 14th verse. His ministry took place during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. The book of the prophet Jeremiah cites the words of Micah from 3:12, which he said during the reign of Hezekiah, and on this basis it can be concluded that Micah was younger than his contemporary Isaiah. The historical background of the book is the same as in the initial chapters of Isaiah, although it is clear that Micah did not know the political life of the capital as well as Isaiah. This is probably due to the fact that he lived far beyond its borders (usually Moreshef is associated with Bet Ibrim).

Representatives of the school of modern negative criticism do not believe that Micah wrote the entire book. Eisfeld, for example, believes that he wrote the first three chapters with the exception of 2:12, 13. From his point of view, the title (1:1) is secondary in its historical accuracy, and the content of the first seven verses (1:2-8) were proclaimed shortly before the death of the Northern Kingdom. As for the remaining verses of the first chapter (1:9-16), they are related to the situation of 701 or 711. The rest of this section makes no reference to a specific historical situation.

Eisfeld finds it very difficult to make any judgment about the historical accuracy and authenticity of the material contained in 4:1 - 5:8 and 2:12, 13. The arguments made for the authenticity of these passages are noteworthy, but Eisfeld believes that it would be much more reasonable to reject them. First, the words of threat in 3:12 are weakened by the introduction of secondary promises. As for the first five verses of chapter 4 (4:1-5), they are also found in Isaiah, and it is quite possible that originally it was some kind of anonymous prophecy attributed to the authorship of Isaiah and Micah. Moreover, according to Jeremiah (Jer. 26:18), Micah only threatens, but does not promise restoration. As for the rest of this section, they express thoughts that are found only in sections relating to later times: 4:6, 7 and 5:6, 8 - here it is said that the Lord will gather His scattered people; 4:8-14 contains the eschatological hope that Jerusalem's enemies will be destroyed.

The fifth chapter (5:9-14) is reminiscent of Isaiah (Isaiah 2:6-8), and in all likelihood, this was originally a warning to God's people, which later grew into a threat addressed to foreign nations. As for the sixth chapter, the first eight verses (6:1-8) appear to be Micah's, as are 6:9-16 and 7:16. On the other hand, 7:7-20 was written later, probably in the second half of the 6th century BC, when the verse passages of Isaiah 56-66 appeared. In fact, there are certain similarities between the two passages. Moreover, just as 4:1-5:8 along with 2:12-13 (promise) were linked to 1-3 (threat), so 7:7-20 (promise) were linked to 5:9-7:6 (threat). This double series of threats and promises can be explained by the fact that, apparently, there were originally two collections of Micah's disaster prophecies. Later, to each of them was added a conclusion in the form of a promise. It is possible, however, that there was only one collection that absorbed the original material, which was later expanded by the final promise of salvation ( Heilsweissagung), but it was also expanded in the middle, since 3:12 seems to require such a conclusion as well. The first five verses (4:1-5) were inserted first, and then other similar prophecies about salvation.

These are the considerations of Eisfeldt, to which we will now attempt to answer.

the book is, to some extent, truly devoid of a unified connection. Micah does not present any lengthy argument that moves from one chapter to another, but like Isaiah (in the final part of the book) he moves from one topic to another. It is this picture that seems to speak in favor of the fact that there were several authors, although in reality this is not so.

We cannot justify any point of view which, on theological grounds, asserts that the idea of ​​salvation expressed in this book could not have arisen during the period when Micah prophesied. There are no objective data that would testify in favor of the fact that in the era of Micah there was no such idea. There are passages in his book that are very similar to those found in the writings of his contemporaries. If (in an attempt to defend a naturalistic theory according to which the religious views of Israel underwent a certain development) we insist that these passages must also be dated later, our actions will be completely unjustified.

And, finally, we will do wrong if, referring to the mentioned passage from Jeremiah (Jer. 26:18), we begin to assert that it supposedly indicates that the prophecy of Micah consists of nothing but threats. It must not be forgotten that Jeremiah was judged worthy of death because he foretold the coming doom. However, some of the princes said that since he prophesied in the name of the Lord, he should not be condemned to death. In addition, there were elders who said that in the days of King Hezekiah, Micah prophesied in the same way. So, in this case, the mention of Micah was made only in order to compare his behavior at a certain period with the situation in which Jeremiah found himself. Therefore, this passage can in no way be regarded as a characterization of all of Micah's prophecies, and it is completely unjustified to see in it evidence that Micah only proclaimed threats.

ANALYSIS

a.1:1-2:13. Terrible prophecies about Israel and Judah

1. 1:1. Inscription. Apparently, this inscription was made by the hand of Micah himself. At least, there are no sufficient grounds to deny it. If it was not made by Micah, then it must have come from the scribe who inserted it under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.

2. 1:2-16. This section deals with God's wrath against Samaria and Judah. Both kingdoms are doing evil, and the Lord will punish them. The opening word "listen" (1:2) appears elsewhere (3:1 and 6:1). There is no evidence to suggest that 1:5b, 6, 8, 9 was not written by Micham. The figurative language of this description cannot be taken as evidence that it is inconsistent with the historical events of 722 BC. e. The vivid picture of the destruction of Samaria painted by Micah should be connected with the fate of the people themselves, and not considered as a detailed description of what will happen to the city as such.

3. 2:1-13. This passage tells about the reasons for God's displeasure. The first eleven verses describe the sinful acts of the people and tell why the Lord chose to punish them. Verses 12-13 proclaim the coming deliverance.

There is no good reason to say that the promise contained in these two verses does not belong to Micah. These verses are the climax of the first section of the book, and as for the change of theme, this can be explained by the fragmentary nature of the narrative.

b.3:1-5:15. Restoration Follows Punishment

1. 3:1-12. This passage contains the second chastisement, in which the prophet goes on to describe all the sinfulness of God's people, and which culminates in the announcement of the destruction of Jerusalem (verse 12). (Note that there is a certain phraseological similarity between this passage, which is recognized as authentic, and verse 1 of chapter 4, the authorship of which is disputed, which is expressed in the use of the phrase "mountain of the House").

2. 4:1 - 5:1. The establishment of God's kingdom, full of glory.

With minor differences, the first three verses of the fourth chapter (4:1-3) are found in Isaiah (Isaiah 2:2-4). It is possible that Micah had the original, but it is possible that both prophets referred to some one, earlier prophecy. One way or another, but unlike Isaiah, the prophecy of Micah contained in these verses has a closer connection with subsequent verses. There is no doubt that in the 8th century these wonderful promises of future salvation were widely circulated. If we say that they do not belong to the prophets of this period, then we must say that these prophets were only moralizing orators, people who condemned sin and called for repentance, but had no hope to offer their people. (Compare also 4:3 with Joel 3:10; 4:7 with Isaiah 24:24; 4:9 with Isaiah 13:8 and 21:3; 4:13a with Isaiah 41:15, 16; 4: 13b with Isaiah 23:18).

3. 5:2-15. Birth of a new King and His Kingdom. In verse 2 of this passage, the birth of the Messiah-King is announced. His human nature is emphasized by the fact that he will be born in Bethlehem, and his true divine nature by the fact that his origin ( motsaothau) - from the beginning ( miqqedem), from eternal days ( mimeolam). (Compare 5:5 with Isaiah 9:6; 5:13 with Isaiah 2:8).

With. 6:1-7:20. The punishment of the people and the eschatological mercy of God

1. 6:1-16. The Lord complains about his people. The struggle of the Lord is that He has done many good deeds for His people, but they still remain rebellious. The people (apparently personified and represented in the person of some unknown representative of their interests) ask: how can one approach the Lord and stand before him? The answer is that it requires humble obedience to His will.

Compare 6:2 with Hosea 4:1 and 12:2; 6:4 with Amos 2:10; 6:7 with Is. 1:11; 6:8 with Is. 1:17 and Hosea 6:6; 6:11 with Hosea 12:7; 6:14 with Hosea 4:10. These comparisons, offered by Raven, clearly show the connection of this chapter with the prophecy of that time.

2. 7:1-20. Rebuke and promise. (Compare 7:1 with Isaiah 24:13 and Hosea 9:10; 7:2 with Isaiah 57:1; 7:3 with Isaiah 1:23 and Hosea 4:18; 7:10 with Joel 2:17 ; 7:11 and Amos 9:11). It should be noted that between Mic. 7:7 and Is. 40-66 there is a certain similarity, which, however, does not mean that both sections were written in the period after the captivity. I do not have sufficient grounds on which to assert that these verses do not belong to Micah. It seems to Wellhausen that there is a deep gap between the first six verses of this chapter and the rest of the chapter, but there is no reason to assert that there is supposedly no hint of consolation sent down to the people in the first six verses. It is more correct to consider that here, as in other places, there is an alternation of reproof and blessing. Shouldn't this method be used?

TARGET

The purpose of this little book, which seems (because of its fragmentary nature) to be a summary of Micah's prophetic ministry, is to explain why God is displeased with His people, to announce that they will be punished for sin, and to instill in it the hope that salvation will certainly come with the coming of the Divine Messiah.

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET NAHUM

NAME

The book says that Naum was from Elkos, the exact location of which is unknown, although Jerome, for example, believed that he was talking about a certain place called Elkesi in northern Galilee. There is a point of view according to which one can speak of Alkush (five miles north of Mosul), but this assumption is highly debatable. According to Pseudo-Epiphanius, this place was in Judea, not far from Eleutheropolis. It is possible that this is so, since Judah is indeed mentioned in 1:15, and this gives reason to think that the prophet was from there.

In all likelihood, Naum performed his ministry between 664-663 BC. e. (when Assyria, under the leadership of Assurbanipal (Ashurbanipal), captured Thebes (or No-Ammon, as they are mentioned in 3: 8), and this event is considered already completed) and 612 BC. e. (when Nineveh was destroyed). A more precise date is not possible.

The theme of the prophecy proclaimed by Nahum is the fall of Nineveh. The first chapter begins with an introductory psalm, in which the prophet glorifies God's greatness, proclaims the punishment of the enemies of the Lord and the good deeds rendered to those who believe in Him. Then, in chapter 2, he describes in vivid language the siege of Nineveh and its destruction, and in chapter 3 he explains why this city fell. Thus, the book is a complete single work and in its entirety can be considered as the work of the prophet himself.

Nevertheless, Pfeiffer believes that only the triumphal chant belongs to Naum (2:3 - 3:19). Approximately 300 BC. e. an unknown editor prefaced this chant with the psalm mentioned, which he wrote down on the basis of not entirely accurate recollections. Psalm (1:2-10) had nothing to do with the fall of Nineveh and was inserted because it outwardly fit the context. As for the intermediate material (1:11 - 2:2), here Pfeiffer believes that this is partly the work of the editor, and partly the initial section of the mentioned triumphal chant of Naum.

Pfeiffer's theory is subjective and groundless. Could it not be that the prophet himself prefaced his message with the first chapter, seeing that in its majestic description of God's glory and power it might well serve as a prologue?

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET HABAKUM

NAME

The book is named after the prophet Habakkuk. In the Septuagint this name is read Ambakouk, in the Vulgate - Habacuc.

The life of the prophet can only be learned from the book itself. Precise dating of the prophecy is difficult, although 1:5-6 seems to refer to a time when the Chaldean conquests were only a short time away. The period of Chaldean dominion lasted from 625 to 539-538, and, therefore, the ministry of Habakkuk could take place during the reign of Manasseh. If, however, we assume that in this passage we are talking about the threat looming over Judea from the side of the Chaldeans, who, apparently, for the first time visibly declared itself in the battle of Carchemish (Carchemish) (605), then in this case (as many researchers believe) Habakkuk prophesied during the reign of Joachim.

Not so long ago, Doom, Torrey and other researchers, having decided that this passage is not about the Chaldeans ( kasdim), but about the Cypriots ( kittim), began to claim that the prophecy was directed against Alexander the Great and the Macedonians. However, it must be said that such an assumption is subjective and is not supported by the text.

A new point of view was proposed by Bruno Balscheit, who stated that in this passage the word "Chaldeans" is used in a metaphorical sense, as today, for example, many European peoples are called Huns. Thus, what is said in the book is allegedly consistent with the era of Alexander. The assumption is interesting, but there are no objective grounds for it either. Micah and Isaiah had already predicted the ruin of Judah at the hands of the Chaldeans, and therefore the Jews probably knew who their enemy was. Therefore, it is quite possible that the prophet began his preaching when the Chaldeans first appeared on the horizon.

Representatives of negative criticism believe that the book could not have been written by one person. First of all, they argue that the psalm in chapter 3 has nothing to do with the first two chapters. According to Pfeiffer, the author of this poem lived in the 4th or 3rd century and intentionally wrote it in an archaic style, imitating Deuteronomy 33 and Judges 5. One of the first to insist on post-capture dating was Bernhard Stade (1884), who was followed by many other scholars.

As for the first and second chapters, opinions differ quite strongly here. Gizebrecht, for example, argued that verses 5-11 of chapter 1 are out of place and that verse 12 should immediately follow after verse 4. This view is shared by Carl Budde, according to which passage 1:5-11 should come after 2:4. It is this passage (1:5-11, which refers to the Chaldeans) that is at issue in the discussion of this book. We believe that it refers to a real historical event (there is no reason to think otherwise) and that, therefore, it is where it should be.

And, finally, it should be said that there are no sufficient grounds for separating chapter 3 from the first two. First of all, it is impossible not to notice that the same topic is discussed in both sections. A deep similarity is also found in the language. Both in the first chapter (1:4, 13) and in the third (3:13) the enemy is called "wicked" (rasha`). At the beginning of the third chapter (3:2), the vision from the second chapter (2:3-5) is probably mentioned. Moreover, the third chapter is said to be the prayer of the prophet Habakkuk (verse 1). Yes, the chapter begins and ends with the mention of special musical terms, but on the basis of this it cannot be argued that Habakkuk could not write it, since in connection with the book of Psalms these terms were obviously used in the period before the captivity. In his important study devoted to the analysis of this psalm, V.F. Albright argues that the entire book is one and that it should be dated between 605 and 589 BC.

In three short chapters of this little prophecy, there is wonderfully wonderful news. the prophet begins with lamentations. He cries out against vice and violence, but no one hears his cry (1:2-4). And in response to his complaints, the Lord begins to speak. The Lord will not allow the people to escape punishment. He is acting. He will raise up another people, cruel and unbridled, who will punish God's chosen ones. This people (whose character is described in rather vivid colors) will serve as an instrument for the Lord to punish His own people. However, the people chosen for punishment will themselves become proud and will be punished for it (1:5-11).

Further, the prophet says that the Lord is pure and righteous, however, there is something that the prophet still does not understand. Yes, this hostile people will punish the Israelites, but they will punish those who are more righteous than themselves. "Your pure eyes do not look at evil deeds, and You cannot look at oppression. Why do you look at evildoers and remain silent when the wicked swallows up the one who is more righteous than him?" (1:13). The Lord is pure, but why does He allow this?

The answer is not long to wait: it is contained in a wonderful passage from chapter 2: "Behold, the haughty soul will not rest, but the righteous will live by his faith" (2:4). The point is that the haughty, that is, the Chaldeans, have no faith, and therefore they will be punished. Only the one who has it will live. We have before us a comparison built on the contrast between those who believe (the righteous) and those who are full of pride. Such a contrast separates not only the Chaldeans and God's chosen Israel, but also all mankind. If a person is proud and arrogant, then this in itself is already a sign of death. So it is with the Chaldeans: God chose them as His instrument, but they were proud of the accomplished deeds, and therefore death awaits them. Thus, this verse originally indicated a specific situation, but the apostle Paul was quite right when he used it to express the idea that "the righteous shall live by faith." In fact, we are faced with the same situation, since the life that the prophet Habakkuk speaks of is not just an ordinary earthly existence, but life with God in its deepest sense. Many modern critics do not grasp the full depth of the words spoken by the prophet.

In the light of this deep prophetic utterance, it becomes possible to comprehend the five subsequent proclamations of grief addressed to the enemy, and the song of praise (chapter 3).

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET ZEPHANIAH

NAME

According to 1:1 this prophecy was uttered by Zephaniah during the reign of Josiah. In all likelihood (although this cannot be said with complete certainty), Zephaniah proclaimed his message some time before this king began his reform. From some passages (1:4-6, 8-9,12 and 3:1-3, 7) we learn that by the time the prophecy was announced, the spiritual and moral state of God's chosen people was extremely low.

The genealogy of the prophet can be traced back four generations back to Hezekiah. Since Zephaniah is the only prophet whose genealogy can be traced back this far, it can be assumed that there is some special reason for this, and, apparently, it lies in the fact that the mentioned Hezekiah and the Jewish king Hezekiah are one and the same person. If this is so, then it turns out that Zephaniah has royal ancestors, and, therefore, he probably was his man at the court, where he could hear everything that formed the basis of his message.

According to some modern scholars, the book has been revised by later editors, but there is little agreement on specific details. In this sense, Eisfeldt can be considered a characteristic figure. He believes that, with the exception of some minor clarifications and revisions ( Uebermalungen), which could indeed have taken place, there is no reason to doubt the authenticity of the first half of the book (1:2 - 2:3). On the other hand, the authenticity of the final part of the second chapter is doubtful (2:4-15), and at the very least it must be admitted that there were additions related to the period after the captivity (especially the beginning and end of verse 7). As for chapter 3, according to the same Eisfeldt, the first thirteen verses belong to Zephaniah, although in verses 8-10 the influence of editorial work is noticeable. Verses 14-17 could also have been written by Zephaniah, however, since the eschatological additions contained in them were commonplace, they should probably also be considered as a later insert. Similarly, verses 18-20 also do not belong to the prophet and were written during the captivity or after it.

However, these arguments are highly subjective, and there is little reason to believe that this book contains any passages not written by Zephaniah.

PURPOSE AND ANALYSIS

Zephaniah's purpose is to warn the people against impending doom. He describes the day of wrath, but at the same time points to the coming liberation. The book is divided into three main parts:

1. Day of the Lord (1:1 - 2:3). The general theme of this section is outlined in verse 2, where it is said that the Lord will destroy everything from the face of the earth. The prophet then elaborates on this subject, mentioning Judah, Jerusalem, all those who are there, people and animals, all manifestations of idolatry and the royal seed, all of which will be destroyed (1:3-13). Having vividly described the coming punishment, Zephaniah proclaims that the day of the Lord is at hand. He describes it in strong dramatic terms, and this description formed the basis of the medieval hymn " Dies Irae"(1:14-18). At the beginning of chapter 2 (2:1-3) it is said about God's mercy: there is still time to repent and seek the Lord (the prophet ends this section with this call).

2. Prophecies about pagan nations (2:4-15). Like many other prophets, Zephaniah appeals to the Gentiles to convict them of their sins and therefore leave them without justification in the day of God's wrath, and to top it off to show them that, ultimately, the fate of the nations is in the hands of the Lord, that He will certainly punish all those who have dealt cruelly with His people. Thus, the prophecies about the Gentiles are an integral part of the prophetic message, and to believe that they were written by some later editors is simply to misunderstand their true nature and purpose.

Zephaniah first speaks of Gaza and the Philistine land (verses 4-7), and then condemns Moab and Ammon for their hostility towards Israel (verses 8-11); it goes on to say that Ethiopia and Assyria (especially Nineveh) will also perish (verses 12-15).

3. Chapter 3 (3:1-20) describes the transgressions of Jerusalem and future salvation. In the first seven verses, the prophet proclaims woe ( hoi) Jerusalem and describes its sin, and then (verses 8-20) proclaims the coming deliverance. The true Israel will remain, a pure remnant, and the daughter of Zion will sing with joy, for the Almighty Lord will be among the rest whom He will save.

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET HAGHAY

NAME

There is no good reason to believe that the entire book was written by someone else. According to Rothstein, 1:15a should be followed by 2:15-19, and then the mention of the twenty-fourth day of the sixth month; as for the intermediate passage (2:10-14), it is dated the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month; this reversal is thought to help explain why (according to some scholars) there is a change in theme at 2:10-19. In addition, some scholars believe that the text was expanded or changed in 1:1-11. Eisfeldt believes that some parts of the two small collections could be added here.

However, all these assumptions are not necessary, since in its present form this prophecy is one message. When the captives returned from Babylon to Palestine, they were filled with great hopes. Cyrus the Great issued a decree according to which the Jews were given the full right to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. Feeling his patronage and knowing about this permission, the Jews returned to the promised land. Here, however, difficulties awaited them. Detractors appear, trying with all their might to upset the work. The construction of the temple stopped for about fifteen years, and the overall picture was rather deplorable.

In the second year of the reign of the Persian king Darius (that is, in 520 BC), two great prophets appear on the historical scene - Haggai and Zechariah. According to the book of Ezra (5:1 and 6:14), the Jews were building during the time of prosperity according to the prophecy of these two men. As for Haggai, nothing is known about him. In all likelihood, he was born in Babylonia during the captivity and returned to Palestine with the first captives. If so, it is quite possible that he met Daniel in Babylon.

ANALYSIS

Haggai left us a brief prophecy that can be divided into four sections:

1. 1:1-15. The message of this passage was proclaimed on the first day of the sixth month in the second year of the reign of Darius (that is, approximately in August-September). Haggai turns his message to the leaders of the Jewish people: the ruler of Judea Zerubbabel and the high priest Jesus. He begins by describing the thoughts of the people. The people say that the time has not yet come for the restoration of the house of the Lord. the prophet condemns this attitude. The people live in decorated houses, while the Lord's temple lies in ruins. The people take care that their houses are fortified and protected, that they look luxurious, and at the same time they care little about the house of God. Therefore, it's time to see how he lives.

The Lord's blessing will not be given to this people because of their own neglect. “You sow much and reap little; you eat, but you are not full; you drink, but you do not get drunk; you clothe yourself, but you do not keep warm; he who earns wages earns for a leaky purse” (1:6). Haggai calls on the people to start building the temple; The Lord will favor him and be glorified. Having heard this serious news, the leaders of the people and the people themselves feared the Lord, and on the twenty-fourth day of the sixth month (i.e., exactly twenty-four days after Haggai announced it) they began to build the temple, which had been forgotten.

2. 2:1-9. Haggai received the second message from the Lord on the twenty-first day of the seventh month. Essentially, it is a message of comfort and hope. Apparently, there were still alive those who remembered the glory of the first Temple, which Solomon built and which Nebuchadnezzar destroyed in 587. The current temple is no match for that majestic building, but there is no reason to despair. The Lord still abides with His people and still retains the power of the covenant He made with them at the time of the exodus from Egypt. The glory of the second temple will even exceed the glory of the first. The Lord will send "the Desired of all nations" and "fill this house with glory" (2:7). As a result, "the glory of this last temple will be greater than the former, says the Lord of hosts" (2:9). Before us is the Messianic promise. "Desired by all nations" is none other than the Messiah Himself. The attentive reader will see that the blessings the Lord here promises are spiritual in nature. Perhaps the second temple will never compare with the first in outward splendor and grandeur, but its glory will far surpass the glory of the first and will shine after the Lord shakes heaven and earth, sea and dry land (cf. Heb. 12:26-28).

3. 2:10-19. The third revelation was given to Haggai on the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month (that is, two months after the previous revelation). In this section, the prophet seeks to explain to the people that just as the clean is defiled by contact with the unclean, so the former attitude of this people towards their Lord and His house is defiled by their deeds, and therefore the Lord does not give them blessing. However, from now on the Lord will bless. "Are there seeds in the granaries yet? Until now, neither the vine, nor the fig tree, nor the pomegranate tree, nor the olive tree has produced fruit; but from this day forward I will bless them" (2:19).

4. 2:20-23. This revelation (the last), which is a message of comfort, was given to the prophet on the same day as the previous one. It says that the Lord will establish Zerubbabel. This means that He favors the chosen people and will surely fulfill His promises of blessing towards them. The Lord will take power away from the heathen peoples and will unfailingly show mercy to His people.

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET ZECHARIAH

NAME

This book is named after the prophet himself - Zekar-yah. In the Septuagint and Vulgate it is written Zacharias.

Zechariah is said to be the son of Barahiah, the son of Adda (1:1). Perhaps this Adda (or Iddo) was a Levite who returned to Palestine (Neh. 12:1; 4, 16). If so, then Zechariah was a priest and hence is mentioned in the same book of Nehemiah (Neh. 12:16). At the beginning of his ministry, the prophet was still young, and Haggai was his early contemporary. Zechariah's ministry began two months after Haggai's.

One of the first to question the authenticity of this book was the Cambridge explorer Joseph Meade (1653). He was confused that Matthew 27:12 quotes from Zechariah (Zech. 11:12) attributed to Jeremiah, and he decided that chapters 9-11 were not written by Zechariah, that they dated from the period before the captivity and belong to the pen of Jeremiah. The question became acute, and scientists began to consider it differently than before. In 1700 Meade was defended by Richard Kidder, who claimed that chapters 12-14 were also written by Jeremiah.

In 1785, William Newcome stated that chapters 9-11 were written before the fall of Samaria (perhaps sometime during the ministry of Hosea), while chapters 12-14 were written later, between the death of Josiah and destruction of Jerusalem. Thus, Newham believed that in chapters 9-14 he managed to find two fragments dating from the period before the captivity.

In 1792, N. Corrodi, who did not recognize the theory of the pre-captive writing of the book of the prophet Zechariah, suggested (as Grotius did earlier, in 1644), that chapters 9-14 were written many years after the ministry of Zechariah. Scholars are divided, with some holding that the book was written before the exile, others that it was written after Zechariah, while still others strongly insist on the unity and historical accuracy of the entire prophecy. In 1824, in the fourth edition of his "Introduction", Eichhorn expressed the view that chapters 9-14 should be dated rather late. He believed that the passage 9:10 - 10:12 describes the invasion of Alexander the Great (322 BC), and the passage 13:7 - 14:21 is a song of comfort on the occasion of the death of Judas Maccabee (161 BC). BC.). Eichhorn was followed by other scholars who claimed that the mentioned chapters belonged to the late period of the Greek conquests, but there were also those (for example, Rosenmüller and Hitzig) who claimed that they were written before the captivity. As time passed, the second point of view grew in number, and beginning in 1842, critical examination of the sources of the Old Testament was more or less divided into two camps: those who maintained the unity of all prophecy, and those who argued that chapters 9-14 were written before captivity.

In 1881-1882, Stade gave a new direction to the critical attitude, stating that the chapters in question were written during the Diadochi (306-278 BC), and this led to a revival of the hypothesis that the entire book appeared after the ministry of Zechariah. Today, the scientific world is divided into those who defend the unity of the entire book (Robinson, Davis, Meller) and those who believe that the chapters mentioned were written during the era of the Greek conquests (mainly in the 3rd century BC). As for the hypothesis of writing before the captivity, today, as far as we know, it has no supporters, although it was once solemnly announced as one of the "most reliable results of modern criticism" (as Distel wrote in 1875).

Turning to the theory that chapters 9-14 were written after Zechariah, it would be useful to consider it as it was recently presented by one of its most able and learned proponents, Otto Eisfeldt.

According to Eisfeldt, there are some archaisms in 9:1-17 and perhaps 10:1-2, such as the mention of the king of Gaza (verse 5). However, in the same passages there is also evidence of a rather late time (for example, the mention of Greece in verse 13 - ahead). Eisfeldt believes that these passages express a threat to the dominion of the Seleucids in Zion, as well as the promise of the establishment of a messianic kingdom there. However, it is impossible to unambiguously decide whether we are talking about the beginning of the reign of the Seleucids (approximately 300 BC) or the period of the Maccabees.

In the next passage (10:3 - 11:3) one can find even clearer signs of a later period, although even here archaisms can be found. Particular attention should be paid to verses 6-10, which probably refers to the captivity and the great dispersion. The whole passage must be seen as a threat to the Diadochi, both to the Seleucids and to the Ptolemies. Since it describes the same situation as 9:1 - 10:2, both sections may be by the same author.

There is not a single archaism in passages 11:4-17 and 13:7-9, and they undoubtedly date back to the period of the Greek conquests. Moreover, we can say that the events of two decades are consistent with them: before the Maccabean uprising and the period of the Maccabean wars. Two interpretations arise, not without certain difficulties. One is suggested by Marty, who believes that the good shepherd of chapter 11 is Onias IV, the evil shepherd is Alkim, and the three shepherds of verse 8 are Lysimachus, Jason, and Menelaus. According to another point of view (it is defended by Sellin), the good shepherd is Onias III, the evil shepherd is Menelaus, and the other three are Simon, Menelaus and Lysimachus, who were supplanted by the already mentioned Onias III. Proponents of the first view argue that the passage was written around 160 BC. e., supporters of the second - in 150-140. BC e.

According to Eisfeldt, 12:1 - 13:6, like no other, contains many references to a rather late period of writing, and above all where it comes to the eschatological perspective. In the case of "He who was pierced" (12:10-12), it seems to refer to a specific event, but it is not possible to say with certainty which one.

As for chapter 14, it was also written later, and it could have been written by several people, since the views on the Day of the Lord contained in it are somewhat contradictory. It is difficult to determine the exact time of its writing.

In response to the hypothesis that the book we are considering was written after Zechariah (and objecting to this point of view in general), we would like to make the following considerations:

1. The main and strongest argument that is usually made in favor of the fact that the book was allegedly written after the ministry of Zechariah is the mention of the Greeks, "the sons of Ionia" (9:13). The Greeks (i.e., the Seleucids) are believed to have threatened Zion and were seen at the time as the dominant superpower in the region. However, there are serious objections to this interpretation. The prophecy speaks of a defeat, not a victory for Ionia (Yavan). In this regard, the prophet simply calls the captives back to the stronghold (verse 12). Therefore, the situation described is quite consistent with the era of Zechariah, and does not refer to a later time. Before us is not a description of some real battle, but an apocalyptic vision of the coming victory. There is no doubt that in the time of Zechariah Greece was a very important state.

2. In both parts of the book there are no references to the actual reigning king of Israel. Yes, the passage 12:7 - 13:1 refers to the "house of David", however, a careful interpretation of this passage shows that it does not refer to any real reigning ruler. The only king mentioned in both parts is the Messiah (cf. 6:12, 13 and 9:9). Moreover, there are no significant differences in His description contained in both parts, and, therefore, it could well have been written by one person.

3. In addition, it is important to note that in both parts of the book the houses of Israel and Judah are considered as one, and this is quite consistent with the era of Zechariah. (Compare, for example, 1:19; 8:13 and 9:9, 10, 13; 10:3, 6, 7).

4. In both parts of the book there are some characteristic expressions. So, for example, the phrase "so that no one walked on it either back or forward" occurs in both 7:14 and 9:8 ( me`over umishshav). The phrase "says the Lord" ne'um yehowah) appears at 10:12; 12:1, 4; 13:2, 7, 8, and about fourteen times in the first part of the book. God's providence is referred to as "the eyes of the Lord" (3:9; 4:10 and 9:1). The expression "Lord of hosts" ("Lord of Hosts", "Lord Almighty") occurs as in 1:6, 12; 2:9 as well as 9:15; 10:3; 12:5 etc. Verb kal of yashav("to inhabit") is used passively in 2:8; 7:7 and 12:6; 14:10, and only occasionally outside of this prophecy. One can also note the similarity of some expressive phrases (cf. 2:10 with 9:9). Although all this does not fully prove that the book has literary unity, it speaks in many ways in favor of it.

5. Zechariah (like Isaiah before him) is an evangelistic prophet, and the gospel emphasis is felt in both parts of the book.

6. It should also be noted that in both parts the language remains pure. It is noteworthy that it is devoid of Aramaic expressions. Pusey notes that "in both (parts) there is a certain completeness of the language that arises as a result of reflection on the same thought or word: both here and there, for greater expressiveness, the whole and its parts are mentioned together. As a result, in both parts the verse divided into five sections, contrary to the usual rule of Jewish parallelism." As an example, the author gives 6:12; 9:5 and 12:4. This principle of construction becomes clear if we consider the following passage:

Ascalon will see this and be horrified,

And Gaza, and tremble strongly,

And Ekron, for his hope will be put to shame;

There will be no king in Gaza,

And Ascalon will be uninhabited (9:5).

So, given the above considerations, we can say that in the book of the prophet Zechariah there is a deeper than it may seem at first glance, emphasized unity.

7. And finally, it should be noted that among those who believe that Zechariah could not write chapters 9-14, there is no single point of view. Some believe that these chapters are a single whole and that they were written before the Babylonian captivity or after it, but do not recognize the authorship of Zechariah. Others claim that chapters 9-11 go back to the 8th century, and chapters 12-14 go back to the beginning of the 6th, to the time of the Diadochi or even the Maccabees. Still others date chapters 9-14 to the 3rd and 2nd centuries and believe they were written by an apocalyptic author who worked in the style of pre-exilic prophecy. And finally, the fourth divides the whole book into four parts. The absence of a single point of view, even in relation to the disputed chapters mentioned, shows with all its force that scholars have not succeeded in reaching a single point of view, which can be considered as a satisfactory alternative to the authorship of Zechariah.

ANALYSIS

A. Zechariah 1-6. Introduction

In the eighth month, in the second year of the reign of Darius, the word of the Lord was addressed to Zechariah, after which he began to pronounce his message with a call to repent and not to do what the ancestors of Israel did. Thus, the main theme of the book is expressed in the words: "Turn to Me ... and I will turn to you."

b. 1:7 - 6:15. Night visions

1. 1:7-17. With the help of His messengers, the Lord sees everything that happens on earth. The man on the red horse (verse 8) is the Angel of the Lord, the riders are the Lord's servants, who ride on the earth, proclaiming His commands. They report that the whole earth is inhabited and at peace, yet Jerusalem and Judah still suffer the consequences of God's indignation. The question is how long will all this last. The Lord, through the mouth of His messenger (verse 13, "the angel that spoke to me", which, by the way, must be distinguished from the Angel of the Lord) announces that in due time His wrath will be poured out on other nations, and Jerusalem and the Temple will be restored.

2. 1:18-21. First visions. The four horns symbolize the enemies of God's kingdom, and the four workers those who will strike them down. The four horns represent the four empires in Daniel's vision: Babylon, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome. In all likelihood, the representation of this empire in the form of horns goes back to the seventh chapter of Daniel (Dan. 7:7, 8).

3. 2:1-13. Second vision. the prophet sees a "man" measuring the limits of the future Jerusalem, since its current dimensions will not be able to accommodate everything that will be in it after God's salvation.

4. 3:1-10. Third vision. In this vision, the prophet sees the high priest ("great priest"), dressed in stained clothes (symbolizing sin) and praying the Lord's Angel for mercy. Satan is watching jealously.

5.4:1-14. Fourth vision. the prophet sees a golden lamp (which symbolizes God's people) and on both sides - olive trees (a symbol of the Spirit). Whatever mountain hinders the establishment of the Kingdom of God, by grace it will be removed by the Spirit of God alone.

6.5:1-4. Fifth vision. In this vision, the prophet sees a flying scroll - a symbol of God's judgments.

7.5:5-11. Sixth vision. Israel will fill the cup epah) of his iniquity, and the Lord will limit (lead piece) the further spread of sin.

8.6:1-8. Seventh vision. In this vision, the "spirits of heaven" symbolize divine judgments.

V. 7:1 - 8:23. question about post

In this section, the content of which was revealed to Zechariah in the fourth year of the reign of Darius, on the fourth day of the ninth month, the question of the inhabitants of Bethel about whether it is necessary to fast on the day of the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple is given. The answer is that what pleases the Lord is not fasting, but obedience. If the people will keep His commandments and walk in His ways, He will again pour out His rich blessings upon them.

9:1 ​​- 14:21. The Future of Earthly Kingdoms and the Kingdom of God

1. 9:1 - 10:12. Zion will be delivered from oppression and triumph over the Gentile world. This will be accomplished through the coming of the King, the Messiah.

3. 12:1-13:6. This section describes Israel's further turning to the Lord.

4. 13:7-14:21. A cleansing judgment on Israel and the future glory of Jerusalem.

TARGET

Zechariah seeks to encourage the people in the mission entrusted to them by God. the prophet teaches that the anger and indignation of the Lord were caused by the sin of the people. If he humbles himself before God, a glorious future awaits him. The day will come when the nations of the Gentiles will be overthrown, and a time of prosperity will come for Jerusalem. The Messiah will send the coming spiritual blessing.

THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET MALACHIS

NAME

The book is named after its author Malachi. In the Targum of Jonathan ben Hazael, a few more words are added ("whose name is called by Ezra the scribe"). However, in the Septuagint this word is treated as a common noun, not a proper name, and the translation looks like this: "The burden of the word of the Lord (prophecy) to Israel through His messenger ( aggelou autou)" (despite the fact that the name is also given - Malachias). However, it would be better to consider this word as a proper name, since, as you know, the prophetic books were not anonymous, and it would be strange to see an exception here. Be that as it may, but if we really have a proper name, then, apparently, a certain connection remains between it and the expression "My angel" ("My messenger") (3:1).

The whole book is a single whole and belongs to the pen of one author. Nothing is known about Malachi's life, although there are some indications in the book itself that allow one to approximately determine the time of its writing. One could say, for example, that the construction of the Temple appears to have been completed and the sacrifices were already being offered (1:7-10; 3:8). In Jerusalem, the Persian governor ruled ( pehah) (1:8). All this suggests that this prophecy was proclaimed after Haggai and Zechariah.

It seems that the initial zeal associated with the building of the Temple has dried up, and the same religious licentiousness and abuses have begun, which were in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah, and which Malachi also condemns. We see mixed marriages again (2:10-12), no tithes paid (3:8-10), and flawed sacrifices (1:6ff). However, the "prince" (viceroy) referred to in 1:8 was probably not Nehemiah, and therefore it is possible that the book was written during his visit to the city of Susa. Anyway, the book dates from around this period.

As far as modern negative criticism is concerned, it does not deny the authenticity of the book (with the exception of passage 1:1). However, following Marty, Cornille thinks 2:11-12 is an interpolation because the rest of the book talks about Gentiles differently. However, in reality, these verses simply describe the then existing situation and the sinful state of the people. Conill's arguments are unconvincing. In addition, he considers in sufficient detail the problem of naming, emphasizing the similarity with the book of the prophet Zechariah (Zech. 9:1 and 12:1 - "the prophetic word of the Lord"). He believes that there was originally a formula from 9:1, so that other passages are imitations, and that in each case the existing inscription is secondary in nature (in 1:1 it arose due to a misunderstanding of 3:1).

According to Cornille, Zechariah 9-14 and Malachi were originally anonymous prophecies added to the Minor Prophets. First the mentioned chapters of Zechariah were added (as more general ones), and then the more detailed material of Malachi. Then the last appendix (i.e. "Malachi") was inscribed, and this further contributed to the establishment of the important and widespread number "twelve".

Further, according to Cornill, it was noticed that chapters 12-14 were somewhat different from chapters 9-11, and therefore they were provided with a special inscription, a special heading. (Isn't it strange that this anonymous little prophecy originally existed as a single work, and that the difference between its first and second parts was noticed only when it was added to Zechariah? If the difference between chapters 9-11 and 12-14 is really so great , then why weren't chapters 12-14 considered a separate book, as happened with "another" anonymous prophecy - "Malachi"? And why weren't all three texts added to Zechariah's material as one big appendix? Is the desire to receive the number "twelve" really made the so-called editors act in this way?).

In our opinion, all this is just a guess, which has no basis. There is no need to assume that 1:1 is based on 3:1. Can't the opposite be assumed? And could not Malachi himself, consciously imitating Zechariah (9:1 and 12:1), give such a name?

PURPOSE AND ANALYSIS

The purpose of a book is best determined by an analysis of its content. the book is divided into two main parts: the first two chapters describe the sin and apostasy of Israel, the last two indicate the judgment to which the sinners will be subjected, and the blessing that the repentant will receive. Immediately after the heading, the prophet gets to the heart of his message, showing that God's love was manifested in the election of Israel (1:2-5), even though Israel itself did not honor the Lord properly. Priests lazily and carelessly performed their liturgical duties (1:6 - 2:4) and, moreover, incorrectly teaching the observance of the law, served as a temptation for many (2:5-9). The people did not yield to the priests, testifying to their unbelief by mixed marriages ("married the daughter of a strange god") and divorces (2:10-17).