home Finishing Lev Nikolaevich Gumilyov. Criticism of Gumilyov's theory Comment on the statement of ln Gumilyov who noticed

Lev Nikolaevich Gumilyov. Criticism of Gumilyov's theory Comment on the statement of ln Gumilyov who noticed

Lev NikolaevichGumilyov - Russian historian, ethnologist, doctor of geographical and historical sciences. He is the author of the doctrine of ethnic groups and humanity as biosocial categories. studied ethnogenesis, its bioenergy dominant, which he called passionarity.

Lev Gumilyov was the only child in the marriage of the famous poets Nikolai Gumilyov and Anna Akhmatova. During the pregnancy of Akhmatova, the spouses were in Italy, almost no information has been preserved about this trip. Returning to Russia, the entire second half of July and the beginning of August 1912, Nikolai and Anna spent in Slepnev, Bezhetsky district, the estate of the poet's mother, Anna Ivanovna Gumilyova. The birth of an heir was an expected event, because the marriage of Gumilyov's older brother, Dmitry, turned out to be childless, and at a village meeting the peasants were promised to forgive their debts if a boy was born.

Lev Nikolaevich in 1934 entered the Leningrad State University, the Faculty of History. However, already at the end of the first course, he was arrested for the first time. Soon Lev Gumilyov was released, but he never managed to graduate from the university. Already in the 4th year, in 1938, he was arrested again for participating in a student terrorist organization. Gumilyov was sentenced to 10 years in the camps. Later, his fate was mitigated. Lev Nikolaevich should have served a 5-year term in Norilsk. After this time, in 1943, he worked for hire in Turukhansk and near Norilsk. Then Gumilyov went to the front.Gumilyov Lev Nikolaevichfought as an anti-aircraft gunner,he cameto Berlin.

In 1949Gumilyovwas arrested again. He was released only in 1956 and then fully rehabilitated. It turned out that no corpus delicti were found in Gumilyov's actions. In total, Lev Nikolayevich was arrested 4 times. In total, he had to spend 15 years in Stalin's camps.

For the first three years of his freedom, Gumilyov was a senior researcher at the Hermitage Library. At this time, the scientist was processing his own working drafts, written in the camps. In the second half of the 1950s. Lev Nikolaevich talked a lot with the orientalist Yuri Roerich, the founder of the Eurasian theory Peter Savitsky and Georgy Vernadsky.

Gumilev's first articles were published in 1959. The scientist had to struggle for a long time with the prejudice and suspicion of the scientific community towards his personality. When his materials finally began to get into print, they immediately earned universal recognition. Historian's articles appeared in the publications "Bulletin of Ancient History", "Soviet Ethnography", "Soviet Archeology". "Hun"

Lev Gumilyov's first monograph was the book "Hunnu", the manuscript of which he brought to the Institute of Oriental Studies in 1957 (it was published three years later). This work is considered the cornerstone of the researcher's work. It was in it that the ideas that Gumilyov later developed throughout his scientific career were first laid down. This is the opposition of Russia to Europe, the explanation of social and historical phenomena by natural factors (including the landscape) and the earliest references to the concept of passionarity.

Xiongnu

The work "Xiongnu" received the greatest recognition from Turkologists and Sinologists. The book was immediately noticed by the main Soviet sinologists. At the same time, Gumilyov's first monograph found principled critics. The further work of Lev Nikolayevich also caused directly opposite assessments.

Rus' and the Horde

In the 1960s, the theme of Russian medieval history became the main one in the works published by Lev Gumilyov. Ancient Rus' interested him from many sides. The scientist began by conducting a study of the Tale of Igor's Campaign, giving it a new dating (the middle, not the end of the 12th century).

Then Gumilev took up the topic of the empire of Genghis Khan. He was interested in how a state arose in the harsh steppe Mongolia that conquered half the world. Lev Nikolayevich devoted the books “Hun”, “Hun in China”, “Ancient Turks”, “Search for a fictitious kingdom” to the eastern hordes.

Passionarity and ethnogenesis

The most famous part of the scientific heritage left by Lev Gumilyov is the theory of ethnogenesis and passionarity. The first article on this topic was published by him in 1970. Gumilyov called passionarity the super-intense activity of a person in his desire to achieve a certain goal. The historian imposed this phenomenon on the doctrine of the formation of ethnic groups.

The theory of Lev Gumilyov said that the survival and success of the people depends on the number of passionaries in it. The scientist did not consider this factor the only one, but he defended its importance in the process of formation and displacement of ethnic groups by competitors.

The drive theory of Lev Gumilyov, which caused serious scientific controversy, said that the reason for the emergence of a large number of leaders and extraordinary personalities are cyclic drive pushes. This phenomenon is rooted in biology, genetics and anthropology. As a result of it, superethnoi arose, Lev Gumilyov believed. The scientist's books included hypotheses about the causes of the origin of passionary shocks. The author also called them energy impulses of a cosmic nature.

Contribution to Eurasianism

As a thinker, Gumilyov is considered a supporter of Eurasianism - a philosophical doctrine about the roots of Russian culture, rooted in the synthesis of European and nomadic Asian traditions. At the same time, the scientist in his works did not touch on the political side of the dispute at all, which markedly differed from many adherents of this theory. Gumilyov (especially at the end of his life) criticized Western borrowings in Russia a lot. At the same time, he was not opposed to democracy and the market economy. The historian only believed that the Russian ethnos, due to its youth, lags behind the Europeans and therefore is not ready to adopt Western institutions.

The original author's interpretation of Eurasianism was reflected in several works written by Lev Gumilyov. "Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe", "Black Legend", "Echo of the Battle of Kulikovo" - this is just an incomplete list of these works. What is their main message? Gumilyov believed that the Tatar-Mongol yoke was in fact an alliance between the Horde and Rus'. For example, Alexander Nevsky helped Batu, and in return received support in the fight against the Western crusaders.

Khazaria

One of the most controversial works of Gumilyov is the Zigzag of History. This essay touched on the little-studied topic of the Khazar Khaganate in the south of modern Russia. In his work, Gumilev described the history of this state. The author dwelled in detail on the role of Jews in the life of Khazaria. The rulers of this state, as you know, converted to Judaism. Gumilyov believed that the kaganate lived under the Jewish yoke, the end of which was put after the campaign of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav Igorevich.

Last years

With the beginning of perestroika, the poems of Nikolai Gumilyov reappeared in the Soviet press. His son was in contact with Literaturnaya Gazeta and Ogonyok, helped collect materials, and even read his father's works at public events. Glasnost increased the circulation of books and Lev Nikolayevich himself. In the last Soviet years, many of his works were published: "Ethnogenesis", "Ethnogenesis and the Biosphere of the Earth".

In 1990, Leningrad television recorded a dozen and a half lectures by the historian. It was the pinnacle of his lifetime popularity and fame.

On June 15, 1992, Lev Nikolaevich Gumilyov died at the age of 79.

https://www.syl.ru/article/281987/new_gumilev-lev-...-biografiya-interesnyie-faktyi

Gumilyov created his theory, trying to understand why in the era of the Middle Ages and antiquity, undulating and rapid ethnic processes were observed in the Great Steppe. Indeed, they were often, one way or another, associated with changes in climatic conditions. Therefore, to some extent, linking landscape and ethnos by scientists is justified. Nevertheless, the "ethnogenesis theory" lost its credibility as a result of Gumilyov's absolutization of the role of natural factors. The term "passionarity", which belongs to Lev Nikolaevich, began to take on a life of its own. The scholar used it to refer to the original ethnic activism.

Alexander Firsov

3. Ethnogenesis in three stages

“If anyone proposes a more elegant and more convincing concept to explain the facts listed in this book, then I bow my head with respect to him. And vice versa, if someone declared my conclusions final and not subject to revision and further development, then I would not agree with him. L. Gumilyov, "From Rus' to Russia ».

I will try to take the liberty of proposing, if not a more elegant, then a simpler concept of the development of ethnic groups that have developed into a state than the concept of Lev Gumilyov.

3.1. Passionarity development chart

Below is the original graph by Lev Gumilyov, depicting the curve of the development of passionarity over time, on which the graph of the development of any living organism is superimposed:

And here is a graph of the development of the Spanish Empire from the article "The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire":

In transient theory, such a graph is called a "splash":

In practice, to analyze such a transition process, it is often broken down into three parts: growth (development), maturity (stability) and aging (decline). This is done in a variety of areas, for example, in the enterprise life cycle development model:

Two main things need to be said about Gumilyov's schedule:

1. The graph was built by Gumilev without the use of digital data - on a whim, therefore it is either a gift from above (providence led the writer's hand) or is an attempt to depict the standard graph of the development of a living organism in the form of a scientific one.

1. Basically, the schedule does not consist of six phases, but only three simpler ones:
  1. 1. Growth is almost linear. Over time, it slows down due to the appearance of interference, due to which the growth curve goes into a horizontal state;
  1. 1. A stable section, when the growth forces and the reaction forces are approximately equal, the growth is no longer visible, but the fall is not visible either;
  1. 1. The section of the downturn, when the downturn becomes prevalent and stable.

As we can see, the graph practically does not differ from the graph of the development of any living organism.

3.2. Development chart of a living organism

The peculiarity of Gumilyov's graph is that in its form it completely coincides with the graph of the development of a living organism.

In the development of an ethnos, as in any living (biological) system, development first proceeds in ascending order (growth, development, youth), then a certain horizontal section follows (flourishing, maturity), and then comes a decline (aging, decline).

Gumilyov himself admits that his curve is the usual curve of an ordinary transient process that is ubiquitous in nature:

“The curve we proposed is asymmetric, discrete, and anisotropic over time. It is well known to cyberneticians as a curve describing the combustion of a fire, the explosion of a powder store, and the withering of a leaf. L. Gumilyov "Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth ».

Neither in the combustion of a fire, nor in the explosion of a powder store, nor in the development of a sheet at the end of the process, there are such phases as "break", "inertial", "obscuration" and "memorial".

Gumilev's use of these phases only confuses the study of the process of ethnogenesis.

3.3. Three main stages of system development

And these three stages (growth, flourishing, decline) are the same in the development of any biological or social system.

The period of growth for people is divided into additional stages (adolescence, youth).

Gumilyov called the stage of growth the phase of development, the stage of maturity he called the akmatic phase, but in the stage of decline he singled out as many as 4 separate phases: fracture, inertia, obscuration, memorial.

There is nothing surprising. As a person who dealt mainly with disappeared ethnic groups, Gumilyov practically dealt only with recessions in the development of an ethnic group, so he studied this stage more carefully than others and tried to distinguish 4 phases in it.

The fact that Gumilyov drew many small ups and downs on the chart can be considered Gumilyov's individual vision of the standard schedule for the development of any biological system.

3.4. Three main stages of development of a living organism

If you look at living organisms or social structures, they all develop according to the same scenario: at first, the organism (structure) grows almost non-stop. Then certain elements begin to accumulate in the organism (social structure) that do not interfere with growth, but begin to restrain it from uncontrollable and excessive development. And then these same forces begin not only to restrain growth, but become interfering and leading to death.

At the same time, the restraining force is most often not an external factor, but an integral part of the organism itself - its internal regulator, which at the end of the organism's life from the function of a regulator, as the growth forces weaken, becomes a potential source of death for the organism.

If you understand what two forces interact in the body, then there are always two of them.

One force is the cause of growth, and the second force, born of the first, becomes the cause of first growth retardation, and then death.

If we understand the interaction of the two main forces of development, then we can understand the whole course of development, maturity and dying.

Quite simply and clearly, the Gumilyov graph can be represented as a trapezoid, consisting of three parts:

A. The first part of the trapezoid - growth

On this part of the trapezoid, there is an almost rectilinear growth due to the fact that the forces of growth prevail over the opposing forces. At this time, there are no growth-inhibiting forces in the system. Growth is almost non-stop, in the first approximation - linearly, and in the second approximation - exponentially.

There is an intensive growth.

B. The second part of the trapezoid - flourishing

At this stage, the trapezoid has a horizontal section parallel to the time axis. This is the site of maximum rise - prosperity. By this time, forces appear in the system that restrain growth, but do not prevent the system from existing and developing.

In this section, the growth forces and the reaction forces are in equilibrium and balance (compensate) each other.

B. The third part of the trapezoid - decline

The third part of the trapezoid is almost a straight line (more precisely, exponential) - a decline. This is the process of fading away when the counter forces have won.

The forces of growth in the course of time are constantly fading away under the influence of opposing forces. Recession ends in death.

We will analyze these three important stages in the development of an ethnos.

I repeat, only those ethnic groups that have formed a separate state will be analyzed, and almost all ethnic groups go through this.

3.5. small digression

If we look at any family as a union of two people, then we can almost always distinguish three types of families:

in which a man rules,

in which a woman rules,

In which there is no head of the family and the main issues are resolved jointly.

The line between the three types of families is not clear, hardly noticeable, but it exists, and, as philosophers would say, this line is material, i.e. exists independently of our consciousness.

Similarly, one can analyze any biological or social system consisting of a pair of elements: either someone prevails, or the symbiosis is equal.

3.6. Another option

In this case, the organism grows until the moment when the forces of growth and the forces that restrain growth are equalized.

For some time the system exists in time without developing or degrading. But over time, the forces of degradation in such a system win.

In this case, the symbiosis dies when the organism, under the influence of these microbes/microorganisms/forces, becomes so weak that it can no longer resist.

In this case, death usually befalls both the organism itself and its creation.

Note: Adults have 10 times more bacteria than cells.

3.7. What two forces determine the development of an ethnos and a state?

"The nature of labor processes, consumption, wars, the creation of a state or its fall are the same objects of ethnographic research as are wedding rites or ritual ceremonies." L. Gumilyov "Biosphere and impulses of consciousness".

If we are talking about an ethnos that formed the state, then the answer to the question about the driving force of passionarity lies in these two words: ethnos and state.

3.7.1. The first stage is growth

At the first stage, the ethnos grows without much need for government control. But, as they grow, the members of the ethnic group understand that without state governing bodies it is impossible to either self-regulate or resist external influences.

At this stage, the ethnos itself tries to create state bodies that gradually develop, become stronger, and sooner or later begin to no longer obey the ethnos, but already coexist with it on an equal footing. In this case, the state and the ethnic group move to the second stage - maturity (flourishing).

3.7.2. The second stage - flowering

At the second stage, the state and the ethnos coexist as a symbiosis, helping each other and interacting on an equal footing.

But sooner or later, the state apparatus understands how it can manage the ethnic group, deriving more and more benefits from it, and gradually "pulling the blanket" of power, economic and political levers over itself.

Sooner or later there comes a moment when power begins to prevail over the ethnic group.

Power takes over, and the imbalance in relations between power and ethnicity becomes irreversible.

The ethnos and the state are moving into the third stage of development - aging.

3.7.3. The third stage is aging

The moment when power and the state apparatus begin to prevail over society becomes the beginning of the last stage in the existence of an ethnos. At this stage, everything begins to move towards the death of both the ethnic group and the state formed by it.

Let us consider the three stages of ethnogenesis in somewhat more detail. We will focus on the relationship between ethnicity and power.

3.8. Geography and the origin of the ethnic group

According to Gumilyov, for the birth of an ethnos, something is needed that changes the essence of the people at the geographical and genetic level. Unfortunately, there is very little evidence to support such a conclusion. Gumilyov in his writings gives only some references and illustrations.

The role of geography should not be denied - it is important. But without the economic factor, there will be no development of an ethnic group.

The rapid development of an ethnic group is not possible without an economic factor. It is at the intersection of geographical and economic factors that an ethnos is born with its own special character and corresponding lifestyle - the matrix of behavior.

3.9. The economic factor as the reason for the formation of an ethnos

“Ethnic groups ... are always connected with the natural environment due to their vigorous economic activity. The latter manifests itself in two directions: adapting oneself to the landscape and the landscape to oneself. L. Gumilyov "Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth ».

“At some point, an established (historically) group of people, or a consortium, appears on the historical arena, rapidly developing and shaping its ethnic identity and self-consciousness (“we and not us”, or “we and others”). Finally, it takes on a social form appropriate to the time and enters a broad historical arena, often starting territorial expansion ... any process of ethnogenesis begins with heroic, sometimes sacrificial deeds of small groups of people (consortia), which are joined by the masses surrounding them, and quite sincerely. L. Gumilyov, "Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth ».

In this statement, Gumilyov is partially right, since a group of people forming an ethnos begins territorial expansion mainly only in literary sources, but in practice, first of all, it begins the economic use of the territory.

And most often people adjoin passionaries not due to a special “induction” generated by genes, but as a result of specific words and arguments.

“Speaking about the possible sources of drive impulses, we have not rejected only one hypothesis - cosmic radiation.” L. Gumilyov, "Ethnogenesis and the biosphere of the Earth."

In Lev Gumilyov's works, the basis for the beginning of the growth and development of an ethnic group is considered to be a certain combination of influence from space on the genes of people living in a certain territory, and the influence of nature. Moreover, Gumilyov comes to this conclusion as if logically, but by the method of "contradiction", discarding all other options over and over again. This approach is not a direct proof of the first (cosmic) factor, but rather an attempt to adjust the logic to the desired result.

The importance of the second factor (natural) is very important. The adaptation of the landscape to oneself is also important, and the adaptation of oneself to the landscape is also important. But all this is not enough.

Gumilyov missed the third factor, without which there can be no development of an ethnos. This factor is an economic factor, which consists in a gift that nature gives to a person, and to which a person (ethnos) finds the key.

This gift is the opportunity, due to certain natural resources or features of the landscape and climate, due to a certain way of existence of an ethnos (ideas, behavior matrix), to provide food not only for the ethnos itself, but also for a certain number of people. An ethnos begins to develop if people joining an ethnos accept its behavior matrix as their own.

Such a gift allows an ethnic group both to exist independently in a certain territory and to carry out a certain exchange of goods with neighboring ethnic groups, sometimes joining them.

Any ethnos at the beginning of its development has such a gift from nature, which determines its behavior matrix during the formation of an ethnos. And the matrix of behavior in the future will determine the existence of the ethnic group.

Nature gives gifts to peoples in different ways. This is the silt deposits of the Nile for Egyptian agriculture. This is a wide prairie for the United States. These are herds of marine animals for the Eskimos. This is the floodplain of the Lena River for the Yakuts. These are the watershed massifs of the taiga for the Evenks. These are the waterways through the fjords for the inhabitants of Scandinavia. These are steppe expanses for Kazakhs and Kalmyks. This is the way from the Varangians to the Greeks for Russians, etc.

On the basis of this gift, peoples form a matrix of their behavior, which allows them to survive and receive maximum material benefits.

(To be continued).

“History is the treasury of our deeds, a witness of the past, an example and lesson for the present, a warning for the future. ”- said the great Spanish writer and Renaissance humanist Miguel de Cervantes. And this statement fully reflects the creative heritage of the Soviet and Russian scientist Lev Nikolayevich Gumilyov (1912-1992), whose 100th anniversary we celebrated on October 1, 2012.

Gumilyov's works on the history of Ancient Rus', the Khazar Khaganate, the relations of the Russian state with Byzantium, the Polovtsian steppe and many others are now included in the golden fund of world scientific thought. In this article, I will focus on only one problem that the scientist raised - namely, the relationship of Rus' with the steppe nomadic peoples.

Lev Nikolaevich Gumilyov. Rus' and the Great Steppe

Coming into contact with the theoretical heritage of L.N. Gumilyov, one involuntarily gets the feeling that the history that we are being taught today is far from the truth. This is especially evident in the study of the emergence and formation of ancient Russian civilization. The events described in “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Tale of Igor's Campaign”, “Zadonshchina”, “History of the Russian State” by N.M. Karamzin, studies by S.M. Solovyova, N.I. Kostomarova, V.O. Klyuchevsky, many Soviet historians appear in a completely different light when reading the works of L.N. Gumilyov. The same can be said about the historians' assessment of the ancient Russian princes.

As for the relations of the Old Russian state with its neighbors, and above all, with the Khazar Khaganate and nomadic tribes, here too Gumilyov, with his characteristic scientific insight, criticizes the interpretations of events that have been established since the time of The Tale of Bygone Years. The same applies to the story of the Golden Horde yoke. Regarding the relationship of the Russian state with the Mongol-Tatars, researcher V. Demin in his book “Lev Gumilyov”, with reference to the works of the scientist himself, in particular, writes the following: “ As a result of the Tatar-Mongol invasion and the so-called 300-year-old "yoke" that followed, in fact, the formation of a symbiosis of two peoples - Tatar and Russian, was laid, which ultimately led to the formation of the Russian superethnos ". Thus, L.N. Gumilyov is already an innovator from this point of view, and his ideas provide not only food for thought, but are also the most important impetus for a true understanding of the significance of the Golden Horde yoke in the history of our country.

Gumilyov in his writings sought to show the complexity of the relationship that inhabited Eurasia of nomadic and sedentary peoples, the mutual influence of their cultures and traditions. And he quite succeeded in this, although for a long time official science did not recognize the obvious merits of Gumilyov's theory. And only with the beginning of the process of democratization, the works of Gumilyov began to be published. And today we have the opportunity to get acquainted with the theoretical heritage of the scientist, whose works occupy a worthy place in modern science.

Already in the first, in fact, scientific work, Gumilyov began to refute the established canons, in relation to the history of the Turkic and other peoples of Eurasia. In his view, a completely different story loomed, especially about the relationship between the steppe, nomadic and sedentary peoples.

The problem raised by Gumilyov in his Ph.D. thesis was continued by him in subsequent works, about which we knew nothing for a long time. And only recently, thanks to the democratization of our society, have we been able to come into contact with the theories and concepts that were banned. One of them is the concept of Eurasianism, the ideas of which are reflected in Gumilev's numerous works. It should be noted that Gumilyov not only reflected the ideas of Eurasianism, but also largely contributed to the enrichment of its conceptual content. And here, first of all, it is necessary to introduce such works of the scientist as “Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe”, “From Rus' to Russia. Essays on Ethnic History”, “Khazaria and the Caspian”, as well as works on the history of the Turkic Khaganate and the Golden Horde.

In all these works, Gumilev defended the idea that the history of the ancient peoples of the steppe has not been fully studied, but in the available sources, their historical path is reflected in a distorted form. Therefore, he said, it is necessary to study history not only from the socio-economic and political positions, but, above all, from the point of view of ethnogenesis. What did Gumilyov understand by this term? The scientist himself answered this question in his fundamental work “Ethnogenesis and the Biosphere of the Earth”. In his opinion, " Ethnogenesis is a natural process, therefore, independent of the situation, formed as a result of the formation of culture. It can start at any moment; and if on his way there is an obstacle from the acting - cultural integrity, he will break it or break it against it. If it begins when "the earth lies fallow", the emerging ethnos creates its own culture - as a way of its existence and development. In both cases, the impulse is a blind force of natural energy, not controlled by anyone's consciousness ”. In his subsequent works, Gumilyov preached the concept that the historical process is determined by the natural course of development of the peoples inhabiting our planet. And here Gumilyov comes to the fore time , space , ethnos , and most importantly - passionarity .

Speaking about space, Gumilyov wrote: “ space is the first parameter that characterizes historical events” . As for time, Gumilyov believed that time is the second parameter in which the formation, development and decline of ethnic groups takes place. And from what these processes occur, Gumilyov explained as follows: “ ... we can also hypothetically connect the beginning of ethnogenesis with the mechanism of mutation, as a result of which an ethnic "push" occurs, leading then to the formation of new ethnic groups. The process of ethnogenesis is associated with a well-defined genetic trait. Here we introduce a new parameter of ethnic history - passionarity". So we have come to the main constituent principle of the historical process according to Gumilyov's theory - passionarity.All of Gumilyov's scientific activity was connected precisely with this concept. Through the prism of passionarity, he considered not only the history of ethnic groups, but also of states.

“Passionarity is a sign that arises as a result of a mutation (passionary impulse) and forms within a population a certain number of people with an increased craving for action. We will call such people passionaries”- this is how Gumilyov himself wrote, explaining the term he himself invented, introduced into scientific circulation, which today has become one of the fundamental in solving the problems of ethnogenesis.

But not only the problems of ethnogenesis and Eurasianism were of interest to Gumilyov. In his scientific activity, Gumilyov did everything possible to get rid of the preconceived wrong opinion about the nomadic peoples, their connection with Russia. Gumilyov made a great contribution to rethinking the role and place of the Golden Horde in the history of medieval Eurasia. The idea, rooted in historiography, that the Golden Horde yoke threw back Rus' many centuries ago, according to Gumilev, does not correspond to the truth. “ The alliance with the Tatars, wrote Gumilyov, turned out to be a boon for Rus', in terms of establishing order within the country”. Moreover, Gumilyov believed that only thanks to the Tatar army, Rus' was able to maintain its independence and the opportunity to develop further, without falling under the yoke of the Western crusaders. In support of this opinion, we will quote one more quote from the same work of the scientist: “Twhere the Tatar troops entered the business, - said Gumilyov, - the crusading onslaught quickly stopped. Thus, for the tax that Alexander Nevsky undertook to pay to Sarai, the capital of the new state on the Volga, Rus' received a reliable and strong army that defended not only Novgorod and Pskov. After all, in the same way, thanks to the Tatars in the 70s of the XIII century. retained the independence of Smolensk, which was under the threat of capture by the Lithuanians .... ”.

Gumilyov also did not trivially assess the relations between Rus' and the Golden Horde. Here is what they wrote about this relationship: Moreover, the Russian principalities that accepted an alliance with the Horde completely retained their ideological independence and political independence. For example, after the victory in the Horde of the Muslim party in the person of Berke, no one demanded that the Russians convert to Islam. This alone shows that Rus' was not a province of the Mongol ulus, but a country allied to the Great Khan, paying some tax on the maintenance of the army, which she herself needed ”.

Summing up the study of Gumilyov's scientific activity, I would like to say the following: Lev Nikolaevich was and remains an outstanding theorist, whose views, hypotheses and concepts have played and continue to play a key role in the study of the history of the Great Steppe, the Turkic Khaganate, the Volga Bulgaria, the Golden Horde and the Russian state.

Today it is no longer possible to imagine history without the works of Gumilyov, they have long been included in the golden fund of scientific thought not only in Russia, but throughout the world. Gumilyov's works are now published in many languages of the world and are included in the holdings of leading libraries and collections. At the same time, there are not so few controversial points in the presentation of the history of the scientist, and discussions around the theory of passionarity are still ongoing. This is another confirmation that Gumilyov's ideas are in demand by historical science.

icon revered in Rus' Vladimir Mother of God, which was specially brought from Vladimir and carried ahead of the Russian regiments.

Threatening Rus', Timur at the same time helped her, significantly weakening the Golden Horde and the worst enemy of Rus' - Tokhtamysh. But Vitovt acquired a strong ally in the person of Tokhtamysh. He promised Tokhtamysh help in seizing the throne in the Horde. Tokhtamysh undertook, together with Lithuania, to crush Moscow. Lithuania and the Horde were preparing to divide Eastern Europe among themselves.

The pressure of Vitovt and Tokhtamysh on Moscow was somewhat weakened after in 1399 they were defeated by the Golden Horde Khan on the Vorskla River. Tokhtamysh's plans to return to power in the Horde collapsed. He fled to Siberia and was soon killed there.

Vitovt did not abandon plans to capture Moscow. He again gathered forces and attacked the lands of Pskov and Novgorod. Vasily Dmitrievich spoke in their defense. started Russian-Lithuanian lime.

Three times in 1406 - 1408. Vitovt and Vasily Dmitrievich, father-in-law and son-in-law, stood at the border lines against each other with all their military forces. And every time the case did without bloodshed. Opponents made peace and immediately began to prepare for a new confrontation.

Neither side has achieved a decisive advantage. Both Lithuania and Moscow eventually backed down, especially since Moscow was threatened by the new ruler of the Horde - Edigei, and the powerful offensive of the Teutonic Order resumed on Lithuania.

1408 became black in the history of Rus'. Edigeev's army moved to Rus'. In early December, the Horde suddenly approached Moscow. Edigey started a rumor that he was going to Lithuania, and he himself turned to Moscow. The chroniclers compared his invasion with the invasion of Batu himself - it was so ferocious. All the main cities of the Moscow principality were captured ... robbed and burned. Each Horde warrior brought with him several dozen captured Russians.

Reconstruction by M.M. Gerasimov

t paintings peyko ice

Edigei burned the Moscow suburbs and approached the Kremlin. But the stone fortress survived. For a month Edigei kept his army under the walls of the Kremlin, and then went south, because the news reached him that in the Horde

And as soon as another khan established himself in Sarai, Vasily I went to the Horde with generous gifts. There he undertook to pay tribute in the usual way. The Moscow principality, despite the fact that it became the leader of the unification of Russian lands and the largest and strongest in Rus', continued to remain semi-dependent on the Horde.

Battle of Grunwald. If Rus' was crushed again -

into the hands of the Baltics. German knights even captured the lands of the Lithuanian Zhmud tribe. Part of the Zhmudi fled under the protection of Vitovt, the remaining Germans forcibly converted to Christianity, and many knightly castles were built in the land of the Zhmudi. Relying on these predatory nests, the knights continued their advance on the surrounding lands. Zhmud neod-

repeatedly raised uprisings against the knights, but the forces were unequal. And then

turned

fraternal

we have bee knights

no fish to catch, no tor-

with neighbors;

hostages;

G kindly burned with fire; our sisters and daughters

The offensive of the order now threatened itself (Lithuania. The knights also put pressure on

Polish possessions.

Flight of the German Knights

General Allied advance

Only having failed in the east			Battle of Grunwald
ke and making peace with Basil I,.Vi-				^^T"^"G^^eewolde!1
Tovt turned to the west.
				Tan^bergUL
Grunwald		united
Poland and Lithuania met with
Lamy of the Teutonic Order. Centered
there were Russian regiments from the principalities,
that fell into the composition of Lithuania, - see
Lena, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Ki-
Evskiy and Pinsky. First the knights			Troop disposition:
pressed		Polish-Lithuanian
			Teutonic Order
	who were
			allies (Poles, Lithuanians,
but the desperate courage of the Russians			Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians,
our regiments stationed in the center,
			Allied attack on the left flank
changed		the course of the battle.
Lithuanian cavalry moved into			crusaders
			Valenrod's counterattack
step		and surrounded the knightly
army. Defeat of the Teutonic Order			Retreat and return to
was full. Tens of thousands of knights			battle of part of Vitovt's troops
			Smolensk regiments that survived
and Master of the Order.			German onslaught

The Poles, Lithuanians and Russians halted the German onslaught to the east.

After the Battle of Grunwald, Vitovt abandoned the idea of gathering all

Rus. The balance of power between Vilna and Moscow changed in favor of Moscow. She persevered and uncontrollably walked her historical path.

The role of the Church in the unification of Rus'. The Russian Orthodox Church played an important role in the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow, in the struggle of Rus' against foreign invaders. Church leaders - metropolitans, leaders of large monasteries - provided powerful support to the Moscow princes. They spared no expense in organizing the army, inspired princes, governors and ordinary soldiers to defend their native lands.

In the conditions of military hardships and invasions, the death of relatives and friends, religious ascetics, elders, ordinary monks, priests known throughout Rus'

	helped people. All this contributed to the unification
	society, awakening among representatives of all classes
	vii and ages a sense of community, responsibility for
	fate of the motherland. It is no coincidence that the appearance of many outstanding
	church leaders, luminaries of moral
	and service to one’s neighbor, fell on the period of the national
	onal rise of Rus', awakened by the beginning
	the unity of Rus' and the struggle against the Horde.
	Migschshpolit Peter and his successors hurt
	our support for Moscow in its unifying efforts
	I. Their activities were inextricably linked with the political
	teak Ivan Kalita and his sons.
	Metropolitan		stood next to		Dmitry
LitAlexy	Ivanovich, when he, at a boyish age,
shtissia. XV century	I took the parental throne, and supported Dmitry during
	all his patriotic endeavors. It was the mind
	ny, educated, with a solid character-
	Roma man, very pious and modest in person
	noah life, a real spiritual shepherd.
	Collector of Russian souls. big impact on the whole
	rendered Russian life Sergius of Radonezh. Already in
	the age of Bartholomew (that was the name of Sergius before
	monastic vows) was distinguished by a high religious
	propensity for solitude, reading, constant
	yannomu work. After the death of parents, impoverished
	boyars, Bartholomew renounced the inheritance and left
	to the monastery, where his older brother was already. He
	persuaded his brother to accept an even more difficult and difficult
	ly vow - retire, go to live in			deserts, i.e.
	to a small monastery, which is located in the wilderness,
	among the impenetrable forests, and there devote oneself
	serving God.
	In the dense forest of Radonezh, the brothers cleared
	a large clearing, built a hut and put
	a small church in honor of the "~ Holy Trinity.
	Their life has become	mournful	and cruel		written

in an ancient source. The brother could not stand the cold and hunger and moved to the Moscow monastery, and Bartholomew was left alone in the forest.

Two years later he was tonsured a monk under the name of Sergius and spent 12 years in seclusion in a clearing.

His life was spent in labors, prayers, reflections, meetings with those who sought consolation from him. A lot of suffering and adversity fell to his lot. Wild animals threatened him with death more than once. One day a hungry bear came from a thicket. Sergius gave him food and thus calmed the animal.

From the lava o-ch "chd I t zhnich esa1v" Sergius, about his holy deeds quickly spread throughout Rus'. Followers gathered around him, cut cells, put up new churches. This is how the Trinity-Sergius Monastery was born.

For the first time in Rus', Sergius organized a monastery on a new, communal basis. This meant that, unlike the previous cell monasteries, the monks lived in a common household, not located Agali personal

Belozersky.

Icon. 16th century

The whole of Rus' knew the name of Sergius, and the Grand Duke, and the Toromyk and the peasant, listened to his opinion. Sergius of Radonezh blessed Prince Dmitry Ivanovich on the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo. Later, he reconciled the Moscow prince with the Ryazan prince Oleg, who, under the influence of the elder, tempered his violent temper and aggressiveness towards Moscow.

A hermit's feat marked life

Cyril (1335 - 1427), who became the founder of the famous Kirillo-Belozersky monastery.

A virtuous and modest way of life, filled with labors and prayers, attracted people to Cyril. He taught them kindness, high morality, mutual assistance, diligence, devotion to their native land.

The appearance of such mentors of Russian people as Alexy, Sergius of Radonezh, Kirill Belozersky, brightened the souls of people amid the darkness of the hard and cruel life of that time, aroused in them high feelings of dignity, spiritual freedom and patriotism.

But worldly interests, worldly passions also penetrated the monastery walls and influenced the life of the monastic brotherhood. The economy of the monasteries developed. The princes endowed them with land, their own monastic arable land appeared, which was cultivated by peasants dependent on the monastery. Trade operations developed. Money rang in the monastery treasury.

Life sometimes came into conflict with the precepts of the founders of the monasteries. It was difficult to strive for holiness in such conditions. However, true zealots of religion tried to combine Christian

Feasted, and m about n and a x and - in the paste, ort - g -n and t o r about a hal -a -rn and a sryt and x r r a x s. But all the same, about n and u n o n o d i l i o u n d i o n i o n i o n i e r e s , it became - li s pi o ne r a m i t o g d a n e t s i n i l i z a t i n i l i z a t i n i l i z a t and in the deaf and x, previously unexplored corners of Russia.

1. Why did many Russian principalities bring their armies under the banner of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich? What tendency was manifested in the atom of their act?

2. / Is it true that in 1380 many Russian rulers came voluntarily under the hand of Moscow? Justify your answer.

3. Make a plan outline

Comment on the statement of L. N. GUMILEV, who noticed that the fight against Mamai? ? In 1380 Muscovites, Suzdalians, Yaroslavs, Vladimirians, Kostromaites went, and after Kulikov Field the Russians returned.

Answers:

Before the Battle of Kulikovo, Rus' was fragmented into several "states". each was for himself. and after the battle, the people united and became a single country.

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